However, most studies were investigated as composite measures or global score of cognitive functions and the accompanying structural neuroimaging markers have not been well characterized.

The gap

Consensus across the literature

Supporting evidence — 3 representative gaps

• Executive Function Flynn Effect Are Independent of Psychometric <i>⁠g</i> in Aging Populations Across Europe (2005-2022) (2026) · doi

  In the present analyses, we applied a forced single factor extraction to estimate the positive manifold, modeling shared variance across the available cognitive tasks. How- ever, the interpretation of this extracted general factor crit- ically depends on the breadth and content of the cognitive indicators included (Johnson et al., 2004, 2008). Psycho- metric g, as traditionally conceptualized, is derived from a broad range of higher order cognitive abilities, whereas the present g factor likely reflects an executive function-spe- cific construct given the domain composition of the SHARE battery (Johnson et al., 2008). Consequently, our results re- flect longitudinal trends in executive functions rather than general intelligence per se. Second, measurement invariance analyses could only be performed for one of the five cognitive tasks (numeracy II, see Table 7), due to subscale measurement properties. This raises concerns about the meaningfulness of the ob- served test score changes in the remaining four domains and in particular when it comes to verbal fluency. However, the non-verbal subscales of our cognitive functioning as- sessments should be largely unaffected from measurement non-invariance-related problems. Third, some of the decadal IQ (DIQ) estimates derived in this study appear implausibly large and warrant careful in- terpretation. Because DIQs are standardized based on the length of time intervals between samples, even modest per- formance differences may yield disproportionately large DIQ values when intervals are brief. Thus, high DIQ es- timates may exaggerate the magnitude of true cognitive changes, reflecting short-term interval sensitivity rather than substantial cognitive gains or losses. However, changes were for the most part remarkably consistent in terms of sign across countries, thus indicating meaningful evidence for predominantly positive cognitive functioning Flynn effects in our data. Finally, due to our analytical approach, our results rely on refreshment samples added across SHARE waves. How- ever, refreshment sampling was not consistently imple- mented across all countries or waves, introducing temporal gaps in the available data. For example, Greece, Italy, and Luxembourg provided no new samples after 2015, restrict- ing temporal continuity, while Finland and Latvia joined SHARE only in 2017, thereby limiting the observation pe- riod for these countries. Moreover, in the interpretation of cohort differences in older-adult samples methodolog- ical challenges specific to aging research have to be ac- counted for. In contrast to studies of younger populations, Intelligence & Cognitive Abilities

  Keywords: cognitive across samples factor share measurement changes countries present analyses positive available tasks ever interpretation
• CAIDE score, brain structure, and cognitive functions in middle-to-older aged adults: A KoGES population-based study. (2026) · doi

  However, most studies were investigated as composite measures or global score of cognitive functions and the accompanying structural neuroimaging markers have not been well characterized.

  Keywords: investigated composite measures global score cognitive functions accompanying structural neuroimaging markers well characterized
• Traditional and Computer-Based Assessment of Executive Functions (2025) · doi

  Future research should explore how these tools can be integrated into existing cognitive assessment batteries for more accurate measurement of executive functions across diverse populations and clinical contexts.

  Keywords: future explore tools integrated existing cognitive assessment batteries accurate measurement executive functions across diverse populations