The cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences regarding the directionality of the observed relationships.

The gap

Consensus across the literature

Supporting evidence — 4 representative gaps

• The mediating and moderating role of mathematical problem-solving skills in the relationship between primary school students number sense and mathematics self-efficacy (2026) · doi

  The cross-sectional and relational design prevents causal inferences; temporal precedence cannot be established, so findings should be interpreted as associational rather than causal.

  Keywords: causal cross sectional relational design prevents inferences temporal precedence cannot established interpreted associational rather
• Knowledge attitudes and practices related to research culture among medical undergraduate students in Lahore Pakistan (2026) · doi

  The cross-sectional study design restricts causal inference, as the temporal direction of correlations between workshop attendance and knowledge scores cannot be established.

  Keywords: cross sectional design restricts causal inference temporal direction correlations workshop attendance knowledge scores cannot established
• The impact of the mathematical adversity quotient on preparatory students’ mathematics learning engagement: moderated mediation effect analysis (2026) · doi

  The cross-sectional design precludes causal inferences regarding the directionality of the observed relationships.

  Keywords: cross sectional design precludes causal inferences regarding directionality observed relationships
• Academic jealousy, attitudes, and motivation in relation to foreign language learning effort: a structural equation modeling approach (2026) · doi

  The cross-sectional design limits causal inferences, preventing the establishment of cause-and-effect relationships between variables.

  Keywords: cross sectional design limits causal inferences preventing establishment cause effect relationships variables