Theory of mind (ToM) consists of cognitive and affective components; however, few studies have evaluated the coherence of affective ToM measures and their associations with empathy.

The gap

Consensus across the literature

Supporting evidence — 4 representative gaps

• Cognitive Empathy, Affective Empathy and Empirical Research on the Double Empathy Problem: A Critical Methodology Review (2026) · doi

  Limitations of this study will now be stated. Firstly, the lit- erature search took place in July 2025. This means it has not covered any literature published after this date. This may be problematic given the continued and potentially growing academic interest in the double empathy problem. Secondly, one exact meaning of cognitive empathy or affective empa- thy was not specified. As such, this risks contributing to the “conceptual confusion” (Bollen, 2023a, p.2) which can occur in debates over empathy. However, this approach was taken to better connect this research with autism research more broadly, given the multiplicity of definitions of empa- thy employed in autism research. Whilst this author hopes future research will consider how the double empathy prob- lem relates to cognitive and affective empathy, they also believe that there is very strong value in specific studies pro- viding a more specific definition of cognitive and affective empathy and that effort is made to ensure the measurements employed are suitable for that particular definition (see Bol- len, 2023b; Harrison et al., 2022). Thirdly, this paper did not produce any new empirical findings. However, this paper has contributed through clarifying the areas of empathy the evidence supporting the double empathy problem is appli- cable towards. It has also contributed by outlining possible approaches to studying whether the double empathy prob- lem is applicable to cognitive and affective empathy. Fourth, this paper has not considered whether any reduced cogni- tive or affective empathy in autistic to autistic interactions should or should not be considered a deficit. Even if future studies showed that autistic individuals attain significantly 1 3Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorderslower levels of cognitive or affective empathy with other autistic individuals compared with non-autistic to non- autistic pairings, there would still be an outstanding ques- tion of whether this would be a deficit or just a difference. This author has taken initial steps towards considering this complicated philosophical question (Fellowes, 2025).

  Keywords: empathy affective autistic cognitive double autism whether given problem empa taken employed author future prob
• The case for mindfulness‐based approaches in the cultivation of empathy: Does nonjudgmental, present‐moment awareness increase capacity for perspective‐taking and empathic concern? (2007) · doi

  Preliminary findings suggest that the viability of these interventions for increasing empathic responding should be further investigated, and specific suggestions for this line of research are offered.

  Keywords: preliminary suggest viability interventions increasing empathic responding further investigated specific suggestions line offered
• Developing an understanding of others’ emotional states: Relations among affective theory of mind and empathy measures in early childhood (2020) · doi

  Theory of mind (ToM) consists of cognitive and affective components; however, few studies have evaluated the coherence of affective ToM measures and their associations with empathy.

  Keywords: affective theory mind consists cognitive components evaluated coherence measures associations empathy
• Too early for a neuropsychology of empathy (2002) · doi

  Preston & de Waal (P&deW) attempt to remedy this, although it remains unclear whether empathy consists of two discrete processes, or whether a perceptual and motor component are joined in some sort of behavioral inevitability.

  Keywords: whether preston waal attempt remedy remains unclear empathy consists discrete processes perceptual motor component joined