Whilst the existing literature on multilingual learning in curriculum has properly addressed a variety of instructional factors, few studies have been dedicated to investigating the influence of insti

The gap

Consensus across the literature

Supporting evidence — 5 representative gaps

• Cultivating Epistemic Agency through Translanguaging: An Africanising Framework for English Teacher Education in South Africa (2026) · doi

  Policy: (a) align institutional assessment policies with multilingual pedagogy by allowing multilingual drafting and translanguaged practice of comprehension; (b) support the development of Indigenous-language terminology and discipline- specific glossaries; and (c) create institutional safe spaces (tutorials, writing centres, peer mentoring) where multilingual meaning-making is explicitly validated. Practice: (a) create and disseminate pedagogical resources (textbook supplements, contextually-relevant examples, multilingual concept maps) that merge AIKS with standard English-language content; (b) develop assessment rubrics that prioritise conceptual accuracy, critical analysis, and epistemic positioning, while treating language form as a distinct and supported aspect; and (c) strengthen lecturer confidence through continuous professional development communities. Future research: (a) perform longitudinal follow-up studies to monitor these pre- service teachers throughout their first year of teaching to investigate transfer and restrictions; and (b) evaluate the framework across various institutions, subjects, and provinces, including mostly online programmes.

  Keywords: multilingual language institutional assessment practice development create policy align policies pedagogy allowing drafting translanguaged comprehension
• Implementation of Multi-Lingual Education in Technical Vocational Education (Tech-Voc) Schools (2026) · doi

  Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations. First, the study was limited to 40 teacher-respondents, which may affect the generalizability of the findings. Second, the data were based solely on self-reported responses, which may be influenced by personal bias or social desirability. Third, the study focused only on teachers’ perceptions and did not include student performance data or classroom observations. Future studies may include a larger sample size, incorporate qualitative methods such as interviews or observations, and examine the impact of multilingual education on students’ learning outcomes to provide a more comprehensive understanding. LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter presents relevant literature, theories, and studies that provide the conceptual and empirical foundation of the study. It reviews existing research on Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE), its policy framework in the Philippines, and its relevance to Technical-Vocational Education (TVE). The chapter also synthesizes the reviewed literature and studies to identify research gaps addressed by the present investigation. Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) refers to the use of learners’ first language as the primary medium of instruction, particularly in the early stages of education, while gradually introducing additional languages such as Filipino and English. According to UNESCO (2003), instruction in the mother tongue improves comprehension and facilitates conceptual understanding, particularly among learners who are unfamiliar with the dominant language of schooling. Cummins’ (2000) Common Underlying Proficiency Theory explains that cognitive and academic skills developed in the first language can transfer to additional languages. This theory supports the use of MTB-MLE as a foundation for effective learning across subject areas, including skills-based instruction. Similarly, Vygotsky’s (1978) socio-cultural theory emphasizes language as a mediating tool for learning, interaction, and social meaning-making. Bruner (1962) highlighted that curriculum design should be guided by the question of whether the knowledge being taught is worth knowing and mastering. This principle underscores the importance of relevance and meaningful instruction, especially for learners from low socioeconomic backgrounds who benefit from education that connects learning to real-life applications. MTB-MLE in the Philippine Education System The Philippines initially adopted the Bilingual Education Policy in 1974, mandating the use of Filipino and English as media of instruction (Gonzalez, 2003). However, studies revealed that this policy posed challenges to learners whose home language differed from both Filipino and English. In response, the Department of Education institutionalized MTB-MLE through DepEd Order No. 74, series of 2009, mandating the use of the mother tongue from preschool to Grade 3. Further support was provided by DepEd Order No. 60, series of 2008, which recognized the mother tongue as an effective bridge language in learning additional languages. The Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 (Republic Act No. 10533) formally integrated MTB-MLE into the K–12 curriculum, emphasizing contextualized learning and workforce readiness. Multilingual Education and Technical-Vocational Education Technical-Vocational Education focuses on the development of practical skills, procedural accuracy, and employability competencies. TESDA (2015) emphasized that effective TVE instruction requires clear communication, comprehension of technical procedures, and learner engagement. When instruction is delivered in a familiar language, learners demonstrate better understanding of tools, processes, and safety standards. Instructional strategies commonly used in multilingual classrooms—such as student-centered learning, cooperative instruction, and content-based learning—are particularly suitable in TVE environments (Freeman & Mercuri, 2005; Howard & Sugarman, 2007). The use of the mother tongue enhances participation, confidence, and skill mastery.

  Keywords: education learning instruction mother tongue language based multilingual learners technical first understanding literature policy vocational
• THE EFFECT OF BILINGUAL TEACHING METHODS ON ENGLISH PROFICIENCY AMONG NIGERIAN SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS (2026) · doi

  Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that teachers strategically integrate the mother tongue alongside English in classroom instruction. This can involve explaining complex concepts, providing examples, or clarifying instructions in students’ first language, while gradually increasing English usage to build proficiency. Such practices can reduce mother tongue interference, enhance comprehension, and foster learner confidence. Educational authorities and policymakers should develop formal guidelines and frameworks that support bilingual pedagogy in secondary schools. This includes incorporating bilingual strategies into the national curriculum, providing bilingual instructional resources, and encouraging schools to adopt policies that allow teachers flexibility in combining English and the mother tongue during lessons. Additionally, it is recommended that teacher training programmes emphasise bilingual teaching methods. Professional development workshops and continuous in-service training can equip educators with practical skills for implementing bilingual instruction effectively, managing large classes, and addressing challenges related to linguistic diversity. Such initiatives will strengthen the overall quality of English language education in Nigeria. REFERENCES Adegbija, E. (2004). Multilingualism: A Nigerian case study. University Press. Adejumo, T. (2015). Challenges of implementing bilingual education in Nigerian secondary schools. Journal of Language and Education, 3(2), 45–58. https://doi.org/10.1234/jle.v3i2.45 Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism (5th ed.). Multilingual Matters. Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters. Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations of assistance to threatened languages. Multilingual Matters. García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. Palgrave Macmillan. Hamid, M. O., & Baldauf, R. B. (2008). Will multilingual education programmes in South Asia work? International Journal of Educational Development, 28(3), 235–251. Kamwangamalu, N. M. (2000). Local policy responses to English in multilingual South African education. International Journal of Educational Development, 20(5), 449–466. May, S. (2013). Bilingual/immersion education: What the research tells us. Language and Education, 27(3), 93–98. Oyetunde, A. (2017). Effects of mother tongue instruction on English proficiency among Nigerian students. Nigerian Journal of Educational Research, 12(1), 33–48. Okon, P. (2018). Integrating indigenous languages in English language classrooms: Impact on student performance. International Journal of Language and Education, 6(3), 22–37. Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic genocide in education — or worldwide diversity and human rights? Routledge. The Scale Journal 2026, Volume 5 Issue 1 215 The scale Journal Website: https://thescalejournal.com.ng/

  Keywords: education language bilingual english journal multilingual mother tongue educational nigerian instruction schools development matters international
• Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Using the Mother Tongue for Instruction in the Foundation Phase in Rural Schools (2026) · doi

  The recommendations emerging from this study are organised according to key stakeholder groups and are further differentiated between short‑term feasible actions and longer‑term systemic reforms. This structure is intended to enhance the practical applicability and policy relevance of the findings. 5.1 Teacher Education Institutions In the short term, teacher education programmes should strengthen pre‑service preparation for mother‑tongue (MT) instruction by integrating structured coursework on bilingual and multilingual pedagogies, translanguaging approaches, and MT literacy development. Practical components, including micro‑teaching, lesson simulations, and supervised teaching practice, should explicitly foreground MT‑based instruction to ensure that student teachers develop confidence and pedagogical competence before entering the profession (Makalela, 2021). Universities can further support this process by modelling MT instruction through exemplars, tutorials, and mentorship from experienced lecturers and mentor teachers. In the longer term, MT pedagogy should be institutionalised within Foundation Phase teacher education curricula as a core professional competence rather than a supplementary topic. This may involve revising programme learning outcomes, strengthening practicum assessment criteria related to language use, and fostering sustained collaboration between universities and rural schools to ensure coherence between theory and classroom practice. 5.2 Practicum Schools and Mentor Teachers In the short term, practicum schools should be supported to model consistent MT practices during teaching practice. Professional development workshops and mentoring sessions for in‑service and mentor teachers can equip them with http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter 730 strategies to support student teachers in implementing MT instruction and translanguaging practices effectively (Mkhize & Balfour, 2021; Probyn, 2024). In the longer term, systematic investment in mentor teacher development is required to align pre‑service training with classroom realities. Recognising and incentivising mentor teachers who effectively support MT instruction may contribute to improving the quality and sustainability of teaching practice experiences in rural schools. 5.3 Education Departments In the short term, education departments should prioritise the equitable provision of MT teaching and learning resources, including textbooks, storybooks, visual aids, and digital materials in learners’ home languages. Curriculum‑aligned teacher guides would further support both novice and experienced teachers in implementing MT instruction effectively, particularly in resource‑constrained rural contexts (Sibanda, 2023). In the longer term, policy coherence and systemic support for MT instruction are essential. Education authorities should monitor MT implementation in rural schools, provide guidance on curriculum adaptation, and align assessment frameworks to recognise MT instruction as a legitimate and valued pedagogical practice rather than an optional or transitional approach. 5.4 Communities and Parents In the short term, schools, teacher education institutions, and local education authorities should collaborate with parents and community leaders to raise awareness of the cognitive, academic, and cultural benefits of MT‑based learning. This can be achieved through parent workshops, school meetings, and community forums. In the longer term, sustained community engagement initiatives are required to shift societal perceptions that prioritise English over MT instruction. Creating community‑level support for MT use in early education can contribute to more enabling environments for linguistically responsive teaching and learning.

  Keywords: term education instruction teachers teacher teaching support schools short longer practice mentor learning rural community
• Students’ conceptions and experiences of institutionalised curriculum for multilingual learning: the case of a dual-foreign-languages programme (2024) · doi

  Whilst the existing literature on multilingual learning in curriculum has properly addressed a variety of instructional factors, few studies have been dedicated to investigating the influence of institutionalisation as a contextual, power-laden factor on multilingual curriculum which in turn influences multilingual learning.

  Keywords: multilingual learning curriculum whilst existing literature properly addressed variety instructional factors dedicated investigating influence institutionalisation