Teacher engagement is a multifaceted concept

The gap

Evidence profile

Sourced from the limitations and future work and stated challenges of the source papers, classified as general, drawn from work published between 1980 and 2026, spanning 8 journals.

Supporting evidence — 8 representative gaps

• Development and Psychometric Validation of a Multidimensional Mathematics Engagement Scale for Nigerian Secondary School Students (2026) · European Journal of Mathematics and Science Education · doi

  mathematics classrooms. The study was conducted in one of the thirty-six states in Nigeria. Therefore, the findings may have limited generalizability to all states. The validation was restricted to two levels at the secondary school, and hence, the applicability to other age groups or educational stages outside it may be uncertain. Furthermore, there may be inconsistencies in items on engagement measurement scales across behavioural, emotional, and cognitive dimensions, which can complicate comparisons across studies and contexts.

  generallimitationsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: states across mathematics classrooms conducted thirty nigeria limited generalizability validation restricted levels secondary school hence
• AI meets Piaget and Vygotsky: A theory-driven approach to fraction learning in Greek lower secondary mathematics (2026) · European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · doi

  While the findings of this study are encouraging, several limitations should be acknowledged to contextualize the results. First, the sample was drawn from a single lower secondary school in Greece, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to different educational contexts, cultural settings, or age groups. The relatively small sample size also constrains the statistical power for detecting smaller effects and may limit the applicability of the conclusions to more diverse student populations. Second, the duration of the intervention was six weeks, which, while sufficient to detect short-term gains in conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, and engagement, did not allow for the examination of long- term retention, transfer of learning, or sustained changes in attitudes toward mathematics. Longer interventions might yield different patterns of improvement or reveal whether the observed benefits persist over time. Third, the study relied on teacher-managed AI tool usage records and self-reported engagement measures. While these approaches provide valuable insights, they may be subject to biases such as 352 European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 14(3), 337-358 European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 2026 overestimation of engagement or underreporting difficulties. More objective measures, such as automated log data analysis and direct observation, could provide richer and more precise evidence of how students interact with AI tools. Finally, the intervention was implemented under relatively favorable conditions, including adequate technological infrastructure and teacher familiarity with AI tools. Schools with limited resources, insufficient internet connectivity, or lower levels of teacher preparedness may face additional challenges in achieving similar outcomes.

  generallimitationsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: engagement mathematics teacher sample lower limit different relatively intervention term measures provide european journal science
• Exploring students’ experiences with blackboard's AI conversation tool: a qualitative study based on the AIDUA model (2026) · Frontiers in Education · doi

  imply long-term It is important to acknowledge that the observed engagement patterns emerged within a bounded instructional episode. While these findings offer valuable insights into initial user experience, they do not necessarily behavioral transformation. The qualitative nature of this study captures a “snapshot” of student perceptions during their first encounter with the findings represent adoption intent rather than verified longitudinal usage. these constraints by should address conducting longitudinal comparisons across various academic levels and employing quantitative experimental designs to validate the stability of these emotional and cognitive appraisals over time.

  generallimitationsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: ndings longitudinal imply long term important acknowledge observed engagement patterns emerged within bounded instructional episode
• Human Centered Interactive Animated Video to Enhance Primary Students' Learning Enthusiasm in Human Digestive System Instruction: A Classroom Action Study in an Indonesian Islamic Elementary School (2026) · Women, Education, and Social Welfare · doi

  This study was conducted in one Grade 5 classroom with 21 students and used an actionresearch design; its findings should therefore be interpreted as context-specific improvement evidence rather than population-level causal proof. The study did not include a comparison group, longitudinal follow-up, or formal psychometric validation of the questionnaire. Complete Cycle I questionnaire totals were not retained, so only pre-cycle and post-Cycle II questionnaire comparisons are reported. In addition, transcript-level interview records were unavailable and were therefore not used as a separate analytic dataset. Future research should test the proposed pathway across multiple schools, include validated engagement measures, capture student talk systematically, and examine whether enthusiasm gains are accompanied by durable conceptual understanding and more equitable participation patterns.

  generallimitationsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: questionnaire cycle used level include conducted grade classroom students action design interpreted context specific improvement
• National Mathematics Program and Its Relationship to Learners’ Attitude, Engagement, and Perceived Mathematical Competence: Basis for Policy Recommendations (2026) · International Journal of Sustainability and Advanced Integrated Research · doi

  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859 Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059 Fredricks, J. A., Reschly, A. L., & Christenson, S. L. (2021). Handbook of student engagement interventions. Academic Press. Fredricks, J. A., Wang, M. T., Schall Linn, J., Hofkens, T., Sung, H., Parr, A., & Allerton, J. (2022). Using qualitative methods to develop a multidimensional understanding of student engagement. Learning and Instruction, 80, 101620. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101620 García, E., & Weiss, E. (2021). The role of data-driven instruction in improving student outcomes. Economic Policy Institute. International Journal of Sustainability and Advanced Integrated Research Volume 2, Issue 2 (July-September 2026) | ISSN: 3107-7854 295 International Journal of Sustainability and Advanced Integrated Research Volume 2, Issue 3 (July-September 2026) | ISSN: 3107-7854 González, A., Paoloni, P. V., & Donolo, D. (2023). Self-efficacy and academic achievement in mathematics: A meta- analytic review. Educational Psychology Review, 35(2), 1–25. Guskey, T. R. (2020). Evaluating professional learning. Corwin Press. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. Hattie, J. (2023). Visible learning: The sequel. Routledge. Hidi, S., & Renninger, K. A. (2020). Interest development and its relation to learning and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 55(2), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1658079 Hiebert, J., & Grouws, D. A. (2007). The effects of classroom mathematics teaching on students’ learning. In F. Lester (Ed.), Second handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning (pp. 371–404). Information Age Publishing. Hill, H. C., & Chin, M. J. (2022). Connections between teachers’ professional learning and mathematics instructional quality. Educational Policy, 36(3), 620–648. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904820951111 Hill, N. E., & Tyson, D. F. (2009). Parental involvement in middle school: A meta-analytic assessment of the strategies that promote achievement. Developmental Psychology, 45(3), 740–763. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015362 Hwang, G. J., Tu, Y. F., & Wang, X. (2023). Effects of technology-supported mathematics learning on students' engagement and achievement. Educational Technology & Society, 26(2), 1–15. Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373–398. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057 Johnson, B., Christensen, L., & Turner, L. A. (2020). Educational research: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed approaches (7th ed.). SAGE Publications. Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2021). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction and achievement: A meta- 185–215.

  generalfuture workevidence 5/5
  Keywords: learning https educational achievement mathematics engagement review meta fredricks student instruction psychology school handbook academic
• Exploring Predictors of Student and Parent Attendance in a Tier 2 School-Based Program: Implications for Optimizing Attendance in the Coping Power Program (2026) · School Mental Health · doi

  Future research should consider a broader definition of engagement, inclusive of indicators of behavioral engage- ment (e. Future research could explore whether parent- or teacher- reported presenting problems and family involvement in school are more strongly associated with program engage- ment. Finally, a person-centered approach is limited by the available sample size, such that all profiles that exist in a given population may not have been identified.

  generallimitationsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: future engage ment consider broader definition engagement inclusive indicators behavioral explore whether parent teacher reported
• Pupil Engaged Learning Time: Concepts, Findings and Implications (1980) · Australian Journal of Education · doi

  the possibilities for Despite an extensive past tradition of research, together with the recent inten sified interest, further research into aspects of pupil engagement remain prolific. Three areas are in particular need of closer in vestigation: descriptive studies, observational-introspective studies, and clinical interventions designed to bring about changes within classrooms. Research on these may well proceed on a "broken front". Further descriptive studies are needed to expand our current knowledge and data base about pupil engagement across different classroom settings, in various academic content areas, and for different types of pupils. We have yet to provide comprehensive answers to such questions as: 1. What characteristics of pupils, teacher and classroom contexts, are most conductive of high levels of engagement in meaningful learning? 2. What types of pupil grouping patterns, pupil pacing and degree of in dividualization, are most generative of high levels of ALT? 3. What engagement levels might be considered optimal for pupils with cer tain characteristics, at various grade levels, interacting with different types of academic content? Studies which embody a simultaneous observational-introspective approach are necessary in order to validate behavioural data currently being collected on pupil engagement in naturalistic classroom settings. Acquiring an understan ding of the reasons for the considerable day-to-day fluctuations in pupil engagement, is one area worthy of pursuit. A comprehensive understanding of the complex issues surrounding the question of engagement variability is unlikely to be forthcoming from sole reliance upon behaviouristic research paradigm. Rather, on-site observations would need to be combined with in to obtain a more incisive trospective techniques, such as stimulated recall,

  generalfuture workevidence 5/5
  Keywords: engagement pupil levels different classroom types pupils further areas need descriptive observational introspective settings various
• The Missing Link: Understanding Teacher Engagement in Mathematics Professional Development Programmes in South Africa (2026) · Journal of Education and Learning Technology · doi

  Teacher engagement is a multifaceted concept that encompasses behavioural, cognitive, and emotional dimensions, - Factors that influence engagement can range from the content and structure of PD programmes to external influences such as school culture and support systems, - The study highlights the need for a balanced approach that integrates theoretical frameworks with practical implementation strategies

  generalstated challengesevidence 5/5
  Keywords: teacher engagement multifaceted concept encompasses behavioural cognitive emotional

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