Open research questions in Advancements in Battery Materials

What the literature leaves open

• anodes In the realm of extensive research on high-capacity candidates, silicon (Si) has garnered considerable attention from researchers as a potential anode material. This interest is primarily due to its high theoretical specific capacity (e.g., 3,580 mAh.g-1 for Li15Si4, 4,200 mAh.g-1 for Li4.4Si) (Moon et al., 2019; Qi et al., 2020), low discharge potential (0.37 V vs. Li+/Li), and abundant reserves (Manj et al., 2020). However, its cycling performance is significantly compromised expansion (approximately 300%) during lithiation. This phenomenon results in active particle fragmentation, electrode structure disintegration, and an unstable solid-electrolyte interface (SEI) (Li et al., 2023; Adenusi et al., 2023; Peng et al., 2025). All of this contributes to poor cycling performance and presents significant challenges for the widespread adoption of Si in practical applications. substantial volume the by One of the most effective strategies for enhancing the cycling stability of Si is the partial oxidation process, leading to the formation of silicon monoxide SiOx (0 < x < 2), as an anode material. SiOx offers several advantages, including a considerably reduced volume expansion (approximately 150%) and a high theoretical specific capacity up to 1965 mAh.g- (Tarascon and Armand, 2001) for SiO2 and 2,615 mAh.g-1 for SiO (Kim et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2025). Additionally, SiOx exhibits superior rate performance compared to pure silicon, making it better suited for real-world applications requiring fast charging and discharging (Xie et al., 2025; Luo et al., 2023). Due to these notable benefits, SiOx anodes have found practical use in industry as the first commercially available silicon-based anode materials (Wang et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2015). However, it is crucial to underscore a noteworthy challenge faced by SiOx anodes, which pertains to their initial Coulombic efficiency (ICE). During the initial cycle, SiOx undergoes an irreversible reaction with Li+ ions, leading to the formation of Li2O and LixSiOy compounds (Zhu et al., 2023). This reaction not only diminishes the specific capacity but also results in a reduced Coulombic efficiency (ICE) for SiOx. Consequently, this necessitates a higher loading of active materials in the cathode, ultimately leading to a reduction in the overall energy density of the battery. Furthermore, SiOx exhibits intrinsically low electronic conductivity, which further diminishes its electrochemical activity (Zhang et al., 2019; Ji et al., 2024).

  Binder-free self supporting SiOxCy/C anodes: mechanical reinforcement by biomass fibers and surface fluorination effects on lithium-ion battery performance · 2026 · DOI

• ABSTRACT Achieving ultrafast chargeability and long‐term durability in sodium (Na) ion battery (SIB) anodes is highly sought after, but intrinsically limited by their sluggish Na + transport kinetics and aggressive interfacial degradation.

  Multiscale Kinetics‐Enhanced and Interphase‐Stabilized Hierarchical Architecture Design Enables Fast‐Charging and Longevous Sodium‐Ion Batteries · 2026 · DOI

• Refrences [38, 81] Most widely used and usually introduced through in-situ (self-doping) or exogenous method, modifies surface groups and boosts nucleophilic…

  Sustainability driven circular biochar-based electrodes synthesis for lithium-ion batteries · 2026 · DOI

• The development of silicon anodes is now closely linked to composite engineering. The studies summarized above show that the key problems of silicon cannot be solved by capacity enhancement alone. Carbon frameworks mainly provide flexibility and conductivity; metal-containing phases contribute reinforcement and fast charge transfer; oxide components act as conversion-derived buffers; and polymers offer adhesion, elasticity, and interfacial regulation. For silicon composites to move from laboratory demonstrations toward commercial batteries, evaluation should focus on the behavior of the entire composite electrode rather than on individual components. This requires attention to how interfacial chemistry, such as Si-C or Si-metal bonding, affects stress distribution and reaction kinetics. Precise control of composite architecture is equally important, because excessive porosity can sacrifice volumetric energy density, whereas insufficient buffer space accelerates mechanical failure. Therefore, dense hierarchical structures with efficient void utilization should be prioritized. In addition, practical validation should be carried out in full-cell configurations, under high-loading conditions above 3.0 mg cm⁻², and in electrolyte systems that are close to real battery operation. Overall, silicon-based composites represent an engineering platform in which organic and inorganic components work together to overcome the intrinsic limitations of silicon. Continued optimization of phase distribution, interfacial chemistry, mechanical tolerance, and full-cell compatibility will be essential for unlocking the high-energy potential of Si-based lithium-ion batteries.

  Composite Design of Silicon-Based Anode Materials for High-Performance Lithium-Ion Batteries: A Systematic Review · 2026 · DOI

• this review systematically summarizes In summary, recent advances in the electrochemical behavior of Te across diverse electrolyte systems and outlines effective strategies for controlling its structure and morphology. Covering conventional aqueous and molten-salt electrolytes as well as emerging ILs and DESs systems, this work focuses on elucidating the characteristic features, underlying mechanisms, and deposition pathways of Te. The influences of electrolyte composition and electrochemical parameters on the Te electrodeposition process are also analyzed in depth, with a particular emphasis on approaches to tailor Te nanostructures, film morphology, grain size, and functional properties. These insights not only deepen the fundamental understanding of Te electrochemistry but also provide key theoretical and technical guidance for the electrochemical synthesis of Te-based functional materials. Furthermore, this review highlights the broad applicability of Te-based materials in energy technologies, underscoring their potential and performance advantages in emerging energy storage systems such as monovalent/multivalent metal-ion batteries and thin-film solar cells. However, to translate Te-based materials from fundamental research into high-performance, practical energy storage devices, critical advances remain essential in the mechanistic understanding, controlled synthesis, and device engineering. 5.1.

  Tellurium Electrochemistry: From Mechanistic Analysis in Diverse Electrolytic Media to Advanced Energy Storage Applications · 2026 · DOI

• Silicon anodes remain among the most compelling candidates for next-generation lithium-ion batteries because of their exceptionally high theoretical capacity. However, their practical implementation continues to be limited by severe volume expansion, unstable interfacial reactions, low initial Coulombic efficiency, and the difficulty of translating promising material-level advances into commercially relevant electrode systems. As highlighted throughout this Perspective, overcoming these barriers requires moving beyond a purely material-centric view toward an integrated framework that connects active-material design with electrode architecture, interfacial chemistry, and scalable processing strategies. From this perspective, recent progress in silicon anodes can be understood as the result of advances across multiple length scales. At the material level, structural engineering through carbon frameworks, composite design, and functional coatings has significantly improved the mechanical and electrochemical resilience of silicon-based active materials. At the electrode level, conductive agents, binders, electrolyte additives, and prelithiation strategies have evolved into active design parameters that govern charge transport, structural integrity, and interfacial stability under realistic operating conditions. Importantly, these developments show that the performance of advanced silicon materials can only be sustained when they are incorporated into an optimally engineered electrode matrix. A key message emerging from our recent work is that co-design provides an effective pathway for bridging the long-standing gap between laboratory-scale material innovation and practical battery implementation. Mechanochemically activated additives, interface- stabilizing anion-anchoring additives, LiF-rich surface hybrid interlayers, and dry-process-compatible prelithiation strategies collectively illustrate that stable silicon-anode operation cannot be achieved by addressing mechanical, transport, or interfacial factors must be challenges coordinated in a way that simultaneously regulates composite- matrix robustness, Li-ion flux homogeneity, SEI chemistry, and manufacturability. In this sense, practical silicon-anode design is not independently. Rather, these the sum of isolated optimizations, but the outcome of a tightly integrated electrode system. thick-film electrodes Looking ahead, the next stage of silicon-anode development must transition from fundamental proof-of-concept to solving specific industrial pain points (Figure 5). First, future research should (>5.0 mAh/cm2) prioritize high-loading, specifically optimized for extreme fast charging (XFC). This requires addressing the localized polarization and Li-plating risks that arise when high current densities are applied to high-resistance Si/C composites, with a target of achieving 80% state-of-charge in under 15 min. Second, interfacial engineering must extend to solid-state battery (SSB) configurations, where the primary challenge shifts to maintaining chemo-mechanical contact. Future research and development should focus on “breathable” interfaces that can accommodate Si expansion without delaminating from solid electrolytes or forming voids during stripping. Third, routes, particularly dry manufacturing and integrated prelithiation strategies, should be refined to ensure that prelithiation and binder distribution remain uniform at the industrial scale, targeting a production throughput comparable to current graphite-based lines. Finally, to satisfy the demanding performance requirements of diverse applications such as electric vehicles, robotics, and urban air mobility (UAM), the field must establish a quantitative roadmap targeting at least 1,000 EOL (End of Life) cycles and energy densities exceeding 400 Wh/kg and 800 Wh/L at the cell level. scalable processing Overall, the future of silicon anodes will depend not simply on discovering better silicon materials, but on establishing a holistic design philosophy that unifies material innovation, electrode engineering, and scalable manufacturing. By bridging these traditionally separated domains, silicon anodes can move closer to practical realization in high-energy-density batteries capable of meeting the demands of electric vehicles, fast charging, and emerging large-scale energy storage applications.

  Bridging silicon materials and electrode engineering for high energy density lithium ion battery anodes · 2026 · DOI

• these continues fabrication to hinder The gap between localized material design and macroscopic the practical electrode implementation of Si anodes. Addressing life-cycle limitations requires a co-design strategy that integrates active materials, inactive electrode components, and interfacial chemistry. In this context, co-design has been pursued through matrix engineering and surface/interfacial stabilization. Mechanochemically activated additives strengthen interactions within Si/C composite electrodes, enabling uniform dispersion, a robust matrix that tolerates severe volumetric stress, and improved SEI stability during cycling (Lee D. et al., 2025).

  Bridging silicon materials and electrode engineering for high energy density lithium ion battery anodes · 2026 · DOI

• CDs have been established as a highly tailorable nanocarbon platform for lithium batteries, with their electrochemical relevance arising from the coupled tunability of carbon core structure and surface structure. Across cathodes, anodes, and electrolytes, convergent functions have been enabled, including percolation restoration and nanoscale gap filling for conductive bridging, interphase regulation for stabilized SEI/CEI evolution, and interfacial reconstruction for improved contact and suppressed polarization. Under a unifying S-F-P logic, these functions are most directly reflected by reduced polarization and slower impedance growth, together with improved Coulombic efficiency, rate capability, and capacity retention; for solid electrolytes, additional gains are manifested by reduced interfacial resistance, increased CCD, and extended symmetric-cell stability. Several constraints remain before broad practical application can be realized: (1) Limited reinforcement and conductivity as standalone additives. Compared with macroscopic carbon networks, CDs typically provide limited mechanical reinforcement and moderate intrinsic conductivity. As a result, composite co-engineering is frequently required to concurrently satisfy electrical, mechanical, and chemical requirements. (2) Reproducibility limited by structural variability and impurities. Batch-to-batch variations in size distribution, defect characteristics, and surface chemistry remain a major source of irreproducibility. In addition, impurity residues introduced during synthesis/purification may intensify parasitic reactions with common salts/solvents, thereby destabilizing SEI/CEI chemistry. (3) Insufficient device-level evidence under practical conditions. Performance and failure statistics under high areal loading, lean electrolyte conditions, elevated temperature, and realistic operation remain underreported. Moreover, quantitative relationships linking CD structure, interfacial evolution, and degradation mechanisms have yet to be systematically established. Accordingly, three coupled directions are suggested to accelerate progress: (1) Structure-controlled, impurity-managed, and scalable synthesis. Continuous or modular production routes should be advanced to ensure verifiable batch-to-batch consistency in size distribution, sp2/sp3 hybridization, defect characteristics, surface chemistry, and impurity profiles. Liu et al. Energy Mater. 2026, 6, 600039 Page 27 of 33 (2) Operando-corroborated interfacial causality and quantitative correlation. In situ/operando tracking of SEI/CEI evolution and metal deposition behavior should be combined with quantitative correlations between CD structural parameters and kinetic/transport metrics (e.g., charge transfer resistance (Rct), diffusivity, t+, and exchange current density), enabling structure-function relationships to be translated into predictive design rules. (3) Manufacturability as a primary design constraint. Process compatibility with industrial electrode fabrication should be explicitly addressed (slurry rheology, binder interactions, coating uniformity, drying/thermal stability, calendaring tolerance, and electrolyte wetting). Without such considerations, interfacial benefits may be offset by aggregation or processing-induced segregation. Although this review centers on lithium batteries, these interfacial principles are expected to remain applicable to other interface-limited chemistries (e.g., Na-metal systems), supporting cross-platform relevance[149]. Only voltage-matched, manufacturable, and operando-validated CD interphases are expected to translate laboratory-level gains into robust device-level benefits. DECLARATIONS Authors’ contributions Data sourcing, data collection, and original draft writing: Liu, X. Literature search, data curation, and original draft writing: Wang, P.; Liu, Q.; Xu, R.; Yao, J.; Lyu, Y.; Liu, D. Supervision, original draft writing, and manuscript review: Zhai, F.; Wang, X. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.

  Recent advances of carbon dots in lithium battery materials · 2026 · DOI

• Pouch cell testing was performed at a single temperature (25°C) and external stack pressure (~0.3 MPa), leaving open questions about how synthesis outcomes perform under varied thermal and mechanical conditions.

  Revealing multiscale competing processes in the solid-state synthesis of single-crystalline layered oxide positive electrodes · 2026 · DOI

• This paper has made a systematic review on the latest progress in the preparation of high-nickel layered oxide (NCM) cathode materials and the strategies to optimize their performance. The sol– gel method applies a new reaction mechanism based on esterification. It makes metal ions distribute evenly at the atomic scale, and this effectively improves the structural consistency and lattice integrity of the materials. At the same time, this method greatly simplifies the complex chelation and pH regulation steps in traditional preparation processes. It also shows a good scalability in the experiments carried out at the laboratory level. The coprecipitation method uses stepwise synthesis strategies, new types of precipitating agents and innovative reactor designs. It can control the morphology and composition of precursors in a highly precise way. The materials made by this 27 Proceedings of CONF-MSS 2026 Symposium: Advanced Composite Materials and Polymer Chemistry DOI: 10.54254/2755-2721/2026.AD32213 method have high purity, high tap density and excellent cycling stability. So this approach is especially suitable for the controllable synthesis and engineering-scale production of high-nickel NCM systems. Hydrothermal synthesis, by contrast, makes crystals grow at a relatively low temperature. It avoids the happening of high-temperature phase transitions and the formation of impurities. This method can produce NCM materials with clear layered structures and high crystallinity. What's more, the flexible choice of solvent systems can further control the product's morphology and electrochemical behavior in an effective way. Though, as the nickel content in NCM materials increases—especially in high-nickel systems where nickel accounts for more than 80%—their practical application still faces a series of serious challenges. These challenges basically come from the intrinsic structural instability of the materials during the process of electrochemical cycling. Under high-voltage working conditions, deep delithiation easily causes the loss of lattice oxygen and harmful phase transformations. This loss and transformation will lead to a continuous drop in voltage. Lithium ions are inserted into and extracted from the materials repeatedly, which generates anisotropic lattice strain. The strain makes stress build up at the internal defects inside the particles, triggering the formation of microcracks and speeding up the degradation of material performance. At the same time, the more intense side reactions between the highly reactive cathode surface and the electrolyte make the interfacial impedance rise and cause the dissolution of transition metals.

  An Overview of Modification Strategies for Ternary Cathode Materials in Lithium-Ion Batteries · 2026 · DOI

• Despite progress in Na+ migration pathways, synthesis, engineering, and electronic/ionic mobility improvements, an essential aspect of NVP is lacking, such as scalability, recycling, and electrolyte compatibility necessary for the commercial deployment of NVP-based sodium-ion batteries (SIBs).

  Progress in multi-electron sodium vanadium phosphate cathode for emerging sodium-ion batteries · 2024 · DOI

• Abstract Constructing an artificial solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on lithium metal electrodes is a promising approach to address the rampant growth of dangerous lithium morphologies (dendritic and dead Li 0 ) and low Coulombic efficiency that plague development of lithium metal batteries, but how Li + transport behavior in the SEI is coupled with mechanical properties remains unknown.

  Manipulating the diffusion energy barrier at the lithium metal electrolyte interface for dendrite-free long-life batteries · 2024 · DOI

• Opportunities and challenges in cathode development for non-lithium-ion batteries Haegyeom Kim a, *, Jae Chul Kim b, * a Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, 94720, CA, USA b Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Stevens Institute of Technology, 07030, NJ, USA H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T (cid:1) This perspective discusses challenges in in the sustainability Li-ion batteries aspect. (cid:1) This perspective highlights the current status, important progress, and remaining challenges of the Li-alternatives. (cid:1) This perspective focuses on the selected non-lithium-ion, including Na-, K-, Mg-, and Ca-ion batteries.

  Opportunities and challenges in cathode development for non-lithium-ion batteries · 2024 · DOI

• In this review, we discussed recent progress in biomassderived materials towards energy conversion-related applications, from electrochemical ESS to electrocatalysis devices. The chemical structures, functional modifications, structural morphologies, physicochemical behaviors, and manufacturing methods of BDCMs were comprehensively outlined. Moreover, energy storage devices including supercapacitors and electrocatalytic applications, based on individual BDCMs and BDCM/ metal-based materials, have been described systematically by emphasizing the relationship between the BDCMs’ structure and their applied performance. It is evident that BDCMs offer marvellous prospects for future developments in applications in energy conversion and storage devices. Nevertheless, despite the potential of BDCMs in energy conversion applications, significant challenges remain. A primary concern revolves around the fabrication of high-quality BDCMs with precise structures. Preserving the hierarchically porous structure of natural biomass during the conversion process from biomass to BDCMs poses a considerable challenge. For instance, the pore diameter and distribution of BDCM electrodes significantly influence electrochemical performance, impacting ion diffusion and electron transfer processes. Excessively large pores can diminish the volumetric energy density of EES, while overly small pores may impede the flow of electrolyte ions. Additionally, surface and interface engineering of BDC materials is crucial, involving defect engineering, morphological adjustment, crystallographic tailoring, heterostructure design, catalyst-support interface engineering, and regulation of the catalyst-electrolyte interface. It is imperative to ensure strong contact between the BDCM framework and electroactive components while maintaining low interfacial resistance. Homogeneous dispersion of electroactive materials across the entire BDCM framework is essential to increasing the ’active volume’ of electrode materials. Furthermore, producing biomass-derived materials with desirable electrochemical performance and electronic characteristics presents significant challenges. The large-scale application of biomass-based carbon materials is currently limited by electrochemical efficiency and manufacturing costs. To achieve sustainable development for BDCMs, biomass functionalization and environmentally friendly activation/treatment methods are essential. Therefore, the following potential strategies and new research directions should be considered for the development of next-generation energy storage and conversion devices based on BDCM: 1.

  Biomass-derived materials for energy storage and electrocatalysis: recent advances and future perspectives · 2024 · DOI

• However, the configurational entropy of the HEO, which is thermodynamically only metastable at room-temperature, is insufficient to drive the structural reversibility during conversion-type battery reaction, and the ‘cocktail effect’ has not been explained thus far.

  Synergy of cations in high entropy oxide lithium ion battery anode · 2023 · DOI

• Still, the systematic correlation between the structural parameters of carbon materials and cathode electrochemical behavior remains inadequately understood.

  Balancing SEI Composition and Side Reactions via Porous Carbon Current Collectors for Anode‐Free Lithium Metal Batteries · 2026 · DOI

• The limited data provided fail to effectively support its arguments; the examples of nanocomposites cited are insufficient, and the discussion on lithium-ion batteries is flawed.

  Research Progress on Application of Nanocomposite Materials in Lithium-Ion Battery Separators · 2026 · DOI

• The paper lacks comparison with other state-of-the-art SnO2-based anode materials reported in recent literature to establish competitive advantage.

  Sword-sheath structured CNT@SnO ₂ @CNx boosting the electrochemical performance in lithium-ion batteries · 2026 · DOI

• In situ nano-tomography and nano-fluorescence mapping procedures are highly specialized techniques requiring access to synchrotron facilities, limiting the reproducibility and widespread adoption of these characterization methods.

  Revealing multiscale competing processes in the solid-state synthesis of single-crystalline layered oxide positive electrodes · 2026 · DOI

• The cycling protocol was limited to a narrow voltage window (2.5-4.2 V); testing across broader voltage ranges or alternative electrochemical protocols could reveal additional insights into material stability.

  Revealing multiscale competing processes in the solid-state synthesis of single-crystalline layered oxide positive electrodes · 2026 · DOI

• Fully analyzing the mechanism of electrolyte engineering for HC anodes is crucial for promoting the commercialization of SIBs, but is still lacking.

  Electrolyte Engineering of Hard Carbon for Sodium‐Ion Batteries: From Mechanism Analysis to Design Strategies · 2024 · DOI

• The pulverization of silicon (Si) anode materials is recognized as a major cause of their poor cycling performance, yet a mechanistic understanding of this degradation from a full cell perspective remains elusive.

  Mechanical shutdown of battery separators: Silicon anode failure · 2024 · DOI

• Although the flourishing development of rechargeable batteries boosts the studies on lignocellulose‐derived Si/C materials with high electrochemical performance, the publications that comprehensively clarify the design and functionalization of these high‐profile materials are still scarce.

  Design and Functionalization of Lignocellulose‐Derived Silicon‐Carbon Composites for Rechargeable Batteries · 2024 · DOI

• This topic holds particular significance because solution chemistry and solution‐solid interface chemistry are ubiquitous in daily lives, yet their behaviors remain unclear due to their inherent complexity, dynamic nature, and rapid variability.

  Graphic, Quantitation, Visualization, Standardization, Digitization, and Intelligence of Electrolyte and Electrolyte‐Electrode Interface · 2024 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Advancements in Battery Materials

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• Strategies toward the development of high-energy-density lithium batteries · Journal of Energy Storage · 2024 · 277 citations
• Chemo-mechanical failure mechanisms of the silicon anode in solid-state batteries · Nature Materials · 2024 · 265 citations
• Hard carbon for sodium-ion batteries: progress, strategies and future perspective · Chemical Science · 2024 · 265 citations
• High lithium oxide prevalence in the lithium solid–electrolyte interphase for high Coulombic efficiency · Nature Energy · 2024 · 261 citations
• Achieving a high-performance sodium-ion pouch cell by regulating intergrowth structures in a layered oxide cathode with anionic redox · Nature Energy · 2024 · 250 citations

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