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Open research questions in Spatial Cognition and Navigation

95 unresolved questions extracted from the limitations and future-work sections of 2,203 Spatial Cognition and Navigation papers in our library. Each links back to the study that raised it.

What the literature leaves open

  • Based on the findings of this study, the following recommenda- tions are offered for teacher education practices and for future research: First, it is recommended that spatial thinking be addressed within teacher education programs through explicit, targeted, and structured learning outcomes. The systematic integration of instructional activi- ties that directly target spatial visualization, spatial relations, and spa- tial orientation into course content may strengthen preservice teachers’ spatial self-efficacy perceptions. In primary education programs, it is particularly important to make instructional practices related to spatial thinking more visible and structured. Pedagogical frameworks that explicitly articulate the relationship between games, materials, and activity-based practices and spatial thinking may support preservice teachers’ conscious and intentional use of these skills. In addition, it is recommended that the assessment of spatial abil- ity employ multidimensional evaluation approaches that incorporate self-efficacy perceptions alongside performance-based measures. In this context, the SASEPS may be utilized as a diagnostic and monitor- ing instrument to track preservice teachers’ development in spatial thinking. For future research, it is suggested that the relationship between spatial self-efficacy and performance be examined across different disciplines, diverse samples, and through longitudinal research designs. Moreover, experimental and mixed-methods studies investi- gating the indirect effects of spatial self-efficacy on teachers’ classroom practices and student learning outcomes are likely to make substantial contributions to the literature. (Reference No: 2021-5). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The partici- pants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

    The relationship between spatial ability self-efficacy and visualization performance: psychometric evidence · 2026 · DOI

  • Designing the next generation of map assessment systems: Open questions and opportunities to automatically assess a student’s knowledge as a map. This is particularly relevant given that prior research on mapping and critical thinking has produced mixed results, largely because researchers lack the means to measure and verify the processes students use as they construct maps.

    Mining and modelling the cognitive strategies students use to construct higher quality causal maps · 2026 · DOI

  • Response requirements varied widely across sessions, which could be overwhelming, but reducing items per subcategory produced more consistent responding; future studies could systematically examine the effect of response load. VIT was applied to children with autism, yielding mixed results similar to those reported by Kisamore et al. Finally, probes were conducted without differential feedback, so participants could have responded more with reinforcement, warranting further investigation.

    A Pilot Study on the Effects of Visual Imagining Teaching With and Without Scenic Picture Prompts on Intraverbal Categorization with Students with Autism · 2026 · DOI

  • This research is expected to serve as a supportive resource or reference for researchers, lecturers, and physics teachers who need to address issues in physics education, particularly in students’ visual representation abilities. However, this study is limited to high schools in the Yogyakarta region of Indonesia. Future research should include other regions to make the analysis of visual representation issues more general and credible. Additionally, with a large number of students, it is more challenging to control factors that affect them, such as the timing and conditions during the empirical test. Therefore, future research should take these factors into account to ensure accurate results and problem analysis. AUTHORSHIP Authors’ contributions: Conceptualization, RS, HK; Methodology, RS; Validation, HK; Formal analysis, RS; Research, RS; Data curation, RS; Writing of original draft, RS; Writing of revisions and corrections, RS, HK; Supervision, HK; Project administration, RS, HK; Acquisition of funding, RS. All authors have read and agree to the publication of this manuscript. CONFLICT OF INTEREST The authors declare that there are no external conflicts of interest, direct or indirect, personal or financial interests related to this article. Analysis of students’ visual representation ability in physics based on empirical test resultson the topic of rotational dynamics in the context of the traditional game of gasingRevista Portuguesa de Educação, 39(1), e26006. http://doi.org/10.21814/rpe.36288 14 REFERENCES Abdurrahman, A., Setyaningsih, C. A., & Jalmo, T. (2019). Implementing multiple representation-based worksheet to develop critical thinking skills. Journal of Turkish Science Education, 16(1), 138–155. https://www.tused.org/index.php/ tused/article/view/235 Adams, R. J., & Khoo, S.-T. (1996). ACER Quest: The interactive test analysis system (Version 2.1) [Computer software]. Australian Council for Educational Research. https://research.acer.edu.au/measurement/3/ Aiken, L. R. (1985). Three coefficients for analyzing the reliability and validity of ratings. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 45(1), 131–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164485451012 Ainsworth, S. E., & Scheiter, K. (2021). Learning by drawing visual representations: Potential, purposes, and practical implications. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30(1), 61–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721420979582 Akerson, V. L., Carter, I., Pongsanon, K., & Nargund-Joshi, V. (2019). Teaching and learning nature of science in elementary classrooms. Science & Education, 28(3–5), 391–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-019-00045-1 Anam, R. S., Gumilar, S., & Widodo, A. (2024).

    Analysis of students’ visual representation ability in physics based on empirical test results on the topic of rotational dynamics in the context of the traditional game of gasing · 2026 · DOI

  • Exploratory Status Accessibility Geometry and Multi-Scale Observer Dynamics remain exploratory frameworks. The present work does not claim: • empirical validation, • predictive capability, • universal applicability. The framework should be interpreted as a structured research program rather than a completed theory. The toybox investigations demonstrate that the proposed variables generate coherent behavior under simplified conditions. They do not demonstrate that the framework accurately models real-world systems. 16.2 Toybox Limitations The investigations presented throughout this paper are intentionally simplified. They are designed to: • explore relationships, • • generate hypotheses. identify candidate variables, They are not designed to: forecast behavior, • reproduce historical events, • • predict individual outcomes. Recurring toybox behavior may suggest useful structures but does not establish empirical validity. The framework therefore distinguishes between: • E1 observations, • E2 interpretations, • E3 speculative extensions. This distinction should be maintained when evaluating any conclusions drawn from the toyboxes. 16.3 Variable Selection The framework introduces numerous candidate variables, including: • Accessibility, Integration, • Reconstructability, • • Trust, • Geometric Cohesion, • Constraint Preservation, • Responsibility Envelope. The current variable set should not be interpreted as complete. Additional variables may exist that are: • more explanatory, • more fundamental, • or entirely absent from the present model. The framework remains open to revision. 16.4 Scale Assumptions The framework repeatedly identifies similar structures across observer scales. Examples include: individual observers, • • organizations, institutions, • federated systems. • The appearance of similar patterns does not establish identical mechanisms. The framework therefore proposes scale-related interpretations rather than demonstrating scaleinvariant laws. Additional empirical investigation would be required before stronger conclusions could be justified. 16.5 Observer Definitions The framework adopts a functional definition of observer. This choice enables cross-domain comparison but introduces ambiguity. Different disciplines frequently define observers differently. The present work does not claim that all observer definitions are equivalent. The functional definition is employed primarily to support exploratory investigation of navigation across scales. 16.6 Accessibility Accessibility occupies a central position within the framework. However: The present work does not provide a validated method for measuring: [ A(x,s_n) ] Accessibility. The framework currently treats Accessibility as a conceptual construct supported by toybox observations. Future work will be required to determine whether Accessibility can be operationalized reliably. 16.7 Scale Quantum The framework introduces: [ s_n ] Observer Scale Quantum. At present: The framework does not provide: • a scaling law, • • • transition thresholds, scale emergence criteria, scale collapse criteria. Scale therefore remains a useful conceptual coordinate rather than a validated mathematical structure. 16.8 Nested Geometries The framework proposes that higher-order observer geometries frequently function as nested expansions of lower-order geometries. This interpretation emerged repeatedly throughout development. However: The present work does not demonstrate: • universal nesting, • measurable nesting criteria, • exact boundary relationships between scales. Nested Geometry should therefore be interpreted as a candidate structure rather than an established law.

    Accessibility Geometry v1.1: A Framework for Multi-Scale Observer Dynamics, Integration, and Future-State Navigation · 2026 · DOI

  • Introduction Accessibility Geometry and Multi-Scale Observer Dynamics remain early-stage frameworks. The present work proposes a collection of variables, relationships, and candidate mechanisms intended to support future investigation. The most important next step is not expansion. It is disciplined validation. Future work should therefore focus first upon operationalization, measurement, and falsification before attempting broader theoretical extension. Tier I — Framework Validation 17.2 Accessibility Measurement A central challenge for the framework involves operationalizing: [ A(x,s_n) ] Accessibility. Future work should investigate: • accessibility metrics, • accessibility mapping, • accessibility expansion, • accessibility collapse. Reliable accessibility measurement would substantially strengthen the framework. Particular attention should be given to distinguishing: • possibility, • visibility, • accessibility, • admissibility. These concepts frequently overlap in practice but appear conceptually distinct within the framework.

    Accessibility Geometry v1.1: A Framework for Multi-Scale Observer Dynamics, Integration, and Future-State Navigation · 2026 · DOI

  • Future studies are recommended to involve larger, more diverse samples, use longer intervention periods, and investigate additional variables such as learning motivation, digital literacy, and students’ retention of spatial ability over time. Future research is recommended to involve larger, more diverse samples, use random sampling techniques, and explore the long-term effects of technology-assisted Guided Discovery Learning in mathematics education.

    Improving Spatial Ability Using GeoGebra and Kahoot-Assisted Guided Discovery Learning Models · 2026 · DOI

  • • The system relies on stable internet connectivity; offline reporting is not yet supported. • Image uploads may increase storage requirements over time. • Real-time notifications depend on frequent API polling rather than push notifications. • No automated AI-based classification or severity detection is implemented in the current version.

    AR Navigation System · 2026 · DOI

  • While the sample size is modest, the study employed a full cohort design with total sampling over one academic year, which reflects the actual class size in this Islamic higher education context. Furthermore, the large effect size (Cohen’s d = 1.2) indicates is substantively meaningful despite the small sample. Additionally, the DDR framework, where the experimental phase prioritizes internal validity and the developed model rather than broad generalizability at this stage. observed difference testing of followed in-depth study that this the 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION through iterative further validated Content validity was confirmed through an expert review (SCVI/Ave = 1.00), and its practicability was refinement. The established experimental evaluation the effectiveness of the learning system, showing a statistically significant improvement in spatial ability (t = 2.68, p = 0.017) with a large effect size (Cohen’s d = 1.2). These results indicate that the integrated model effectively supports spatial ability. This study contributes a validated learning model that uniquely combines three digital technologies–computer-aided design (CAD), 3D printing (additive manufacturing), and computational software–within a coherent learning design that unifies digital modelling, physical fabrication, and molecular energy analysis. This learning model can be adapted to other scientific domains that require spatial visualization and multi- representational understanding. The study also validates the good psychometric properties of the spatial ability instrument in the context of three- dimensional molecular aspects. Further research with a larger sample size is strongly recommended to ensure wider applicability.

    STEREOCHEMISTRY BASED MULTIMODAL DIGITAL LEARNING TO IMPROVE SPATIAL ABILITY IN ISLAMIC HIGHER EDUCATION · 2026 · DOI

  • The study was adequately powered only to detect moderate-to-large effects but lacked sensitivity to detect small associations between video game play and spatial abilities. Future research should employ larger sample sizes specifically designed to detect small-to-medium effect sizes, enabling detection of subtle relationships between gaming experience and visual and auditory spatial performance that may have clinical or practical significance.

    Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

  • Genre misclassification remains a potential confound when distinguishing between action and non-action games, as certain game titles inevitably blur category boundaries. Future research should develop and validate a standardized taxonomy of video game genres with clear action/non-action classification criteria, potentially through expert consensus methods rather than AI-based classification, to reliably measure associations between specific game categories and spatial abilities.

    Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

  • Visual and auditory spatial processes have only been examined in laboratory settings, with naturalistic visual search tasks showing no differences in multisensory visual-auditory integration efficiency between action video game players and non-players. Future research should continue investigating both visual and auditory spatial processes specifically in naturalistic settings to provide comprehensive understanding of how gaming experiences relate to spatial cognition in real-world contexts.

    Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

  • The current sample was restricted to university-aged undergraduates, which limits variability in cumulative gaming experience and exposure history since most university-aged individuals have some degree of gaming exposure. Future work should diversify sampling to include broader adult age ranges across the lifespan to provide a representative examination of how video game experience relates to visual and auditory spatial abilities across adulthood.

    Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

  • The study employed initial recruitment targeting self-identified gamers and non-gamers followed by broadened recruitment to achieve sample size, introducing potential selection bias and limiting representativeness. Future research must recruit more balanced demographic samples with specialized groups such as competitive eSports players, true non-gamers, and underrepresented females to assess dose-response effects and sex-specific differences in gaming-related spatial cognition.

    Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

  • Gaming experience was measured exclusively through self-reported questionnaires on 10-point Likert scales for genre frequency, which cannot distinguish between heavy daily players and casual daily players, and do not capture session duration, lifetime years of experience, or skill level. Future research should implement multidimensional assessments of video game exposure including session duration metrics, cumulative lifetime hours, and skill-level indicators to detect fine-grained associations between specific game genres and spatial abilities.

    Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

  • Although Snake-ML demonstrated noteworthy has improvements in AI training visualization, further research is needed on the model’s learning performance during edge training. However, genetic algorithms and other gradient-less optimization techniques have historically resulted in lower computational overhead. However, in theory, Snake-ML’s data augmentation strategies can be differentiated, and therefore, the benefits of backpropagation when implementing this data augmentation would be a relevant path for further research.

    Machine learning for N-dimensional spatial reasoning tasks on the web · 2026 · DOI

  • By synthesizing the complex phenomenon of indoor-outdoor visual connectivity with the role of the façade in shaping this relationship, Visual Connectivity Index (VCI) presents a novel and valuable approach that has not been previously explored.

    Visual Connectivity Index (VCI): Performance Metrics to Evaluate the Ability of Indoor Space and Facade Systems to Connect to Outdoors · 2025 · DOI

  • However, research is lacking on whether affective variables such as confidence and anxiety relate to individual differences in both a mental rotation task (MRT) and a perspective-taking and spatial orientation task (PTSOT).

    Individual differences in emerging adults’ spatial abilities: What role do affective factors play? · 2024 · DOI

  • The Experience-Language-Pictorial-Symbolic-Application (ELPSA) pedagogical framework was used to modify an existing spatial intervention program for delivery by high-school educators to Year 11 students (an important but understudied population).

    Supporting senior high-school students’ measurement and geometry performance: Does spatial training transfer to mathematics achievement? · 2022 · DOI

  • The importance of this study was that very little is known about rural students’ spatial experience; therefore, this quantitative study focused on the relationship between students’ pre-university spatial life experience and spatial visualisation at a South African university in KwaZulu–Natal province.

    The Relationship Between Pre-service Teachers’ Spatial Experience and Spatial Visualisation at a Rural-based University · 2021 · DOI

  • This empirical evidence regarding the ecological validity of iVR might encourage further studies of the benefits of VR techniques in geospatial cognition research.

    Wayfinding Behavior and Spatial Knowledge Acquisition: Are They the Same in Virtual Reality and in Real-World Environments? · 2021 · DOI

  • Most research on this location probability learning (LPL) effect uses 2-dimensional (2D) search environments that are distinct from real-world search contexts, and the few studies on LPL in 3-dimensional (3D) contexts include complex visual cues or foraging tasks and therefore may not tap into the same habit-like learning mechanism as 2D LPL.

    Location probability learning in 3-dimensional virtual search environments · 2021 · DOI

  • Over the last two decades, the field has recognized that, unlike the spatial skills measured by psychometric tests developed by psychology researchers, the spatial problems faced by STEM experts vary widely and are multifaceted.

    Situating space: using a discipline-focused lens to examine spatial thinking skills · 2020 · DOI

  • These results provide intriguing contrasts to comparable investigations in geologic thinking, contribute to a growing understanding of the application of spatial skills in STEM, and will inform further investigation into spatial thinking in meteorology.

    Investigating the foundations of spatial thinking in meteorology · 2018 · DOI

  • The specific nature of this relation has been probed in only a few domains, and has rarely been investigated for calculus, a critical topic in preparing students for and in STEM majors and careers.

    Relation of Spatial Skills to Calculus Proficiency: A Brief Report · 2017 · DOI

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95 open questions have been extracted from the limitations and future-work passages of 2,203 Spatial Cognition and Navigation papers in our library. Each one below links back to the study that raised it, so you can read the original claim in context.

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