Open research questions in Spatial Cognition and Navigation

What the literature leaves open

• the data were gathered in three different countries, over differing time periods, with different instruments, - the time allowed for students to complete the spatial tasks was not strictly enforced, - interpretations between analysis need to be cognisant of the inherent relationship between country and instrument differences

  Gender Differences in Mental Rotation and Visualisation Across Adolescence: Large Scale Evidence from the United States, Ireland, and Austria with Single-Paper Meta-Analyses · 2026 · DOI

• further research is needed to provide more precise estimates of gender-related effect sizes, - research should investigate the development of mental rotation and visualisation abilities across adolescence, - studies should examine the educational significance of spatial ability in STEM learning

  Gender Differences in Mental Rotation and Visualisation Across Adolescence: Large Scale Evidence from the United States, Ireland, and Austria with Single-Paper Meta-Analyses · 2026 · DOI

• The study was conducted with a limited number of participants, - The participants were all mathematics teachers undertaking their M.Ed degree in Mathematics Education from two different teacher education colleges, - The study did not explicitly address the effectiveness of concept maps in other educational contexts

  Concept Maps as a Tool for Noticing Geometrical Definitions and Inclusion Relationships · 2026 · DOI

• Investigating the effectiveness of concept maps in other educational contexts, - Examining the impact of concept maps on student learning outcomes, - Exploring the use of concept maps in other subjects beyond mathematics

  Concept Maps as a Tool for Noticing Geometrical Definitions and Inclusion Relationships · 2026 · DOI

• Investigate wayfinding in other age groups to determine if the findings are specific to 5-to 6-year-old children. Examine the role of other cognitive processes in wayfinding, such as language and attention.

  Componential cognitive correlates of wayfinding in 5- to 6-year-old children: perspective taking, working memory, and nonverbal reasoning · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the understanding of wayfinding in children, as it is often treated as a general ability. The gap is that different navigation situations may rely on partially distinct cognitive processes. The study aims to address this gap by examining component-specific performance patterns and cognitive correlates.

  Componential cognitive correlates of wayfinding in 5- to 6-year-old children: perspective taking, working memory, and nonverbal reasoning · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies the challenge of developing tailored evidence-based selection procedures that account for gender differences in cognitive and operational abilities. The paper also notes the challenge of interpreting test scores in a way that is fair and unbiased. Another challenge is the need to develop test batteries that capture the complex interrelationship between cognitive and operational abilities.

  Gender differences in operational and cognitive abilities · 2024 · DOI

• Further research is needed to explore the interrelationship between cognitive and operational abilities, - Research should investigate the impact of child gender differences on cognitive and operational abilities, - Studies should examine the differences in test scores between genders in other operational professions

  Gender differences in operational and cognitive abilities · 2024 · DOI

• There is limited research that examines the impact of healthy aging on the neural mechanisms underlying spatial memory retrieval for memories encoded recently (24 hours ago) compared to those encoded remotely (1 month ago).

  Older Adults Show Reduced High Frequency Power in Both Recent and Remote Spatial Memory Retrieval Compared to Younger Adults · 2026 · DOI

• The extent to which such virtual tests are effective at predicting navigation in older populations remains unclear.

  Predicting real-world navigation performance from a virtual navigation task in older adults · 2025 · DOI

• A range of tests have been developed to assess visuospatial processing and memory, but how such tests relate to navigation ability remains unclear.

  The relationship between object-based spatial ability and virtual navigation performance · 2024 · DOI

• Whether Thom 's spaces have the general algebraic structure of a monoid, rather !han !hat of a group or semigroup, say, is a question we have not investigated.

  Space and Spaces · 1986 · DOI

• Further study of the use of the Austin Maze would necessarily address itself to this issue.

  Performance on the Austin Maze: Steps towards normative data · 1987 · DOI

• Existing models require substantial computational resources and rely heavily on centralized infrastructures. There is a need for frameworks that can efficiently encode and navigate high-dimensional spaces.

  Machine learning for N-dimensional spatial reasoning tasks on the web · 2026 · DOI

• Although Snake-ML demonstrated noteworthy has improvements in AI training visualization, further research is needed on the model’s learning performance during edge training. However, genetic algorithms and other gradient-less optimization techniques have historically resulted in lower computational overhead. However, in theory, Snake-ML’s data augmentation strategies can be differentiated, and therefore, the benefits of backpropagation when implementing this data augmentation would be a relevant path for further research.

  Machine learning for N-dimensional spatial reasoning tasks on the web · 2026 · DOI

• The study was adequately powered only to detect moderate-to-large effects but lacked sensitivity to detect small associations between video game play and spatial abilities. Future research should employ larger sample sizes specifically designed to detect small-to-medium effect sizes, enabling detection of subtle relationships between gaming experience and visual and auditory spatial performance that may have clinical or practical significance.

  Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

• Genre misclassification remains a potential confound when distinguishing between action and non-action games, as certain game titles inevitably blur category boundaries. Future research should develop and validate a standardized taxonomy of video game genres with clear action/non-action classification criteria, potentially through expert consensus methods rather than AI-based classification, to reliably measure associations between specific game categories and spatial abilities.

  Game over? examining associations between video game play and visual and auditory spatial ability · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of emotional thickness in digital cultural tourism. The misunderstanding of technological determinism in digital cultural tourism. The difficulty in constructing a digital sense of place.

  Construct Users' Digital Sense of Place Through Immersive Virtual Cultural Heritage -- Taking "Digital Intelligence Yuanjing Gulangyu" as an Example · 2026 · DOI

• To further explore the role of field experience in the construction of a digital sense of place. To develop a more comprehensive analytical framework for digital sense of place. To evaluate the long-term effectiveness of the narrative system of 'meaning construction orientation'.

  Construct Users' Digital Sense of Place Through Immersive Virtual Cultural Heritage -- Taking "Digital Intelligence Yuanjing Gulangyu" as an Example · 2026 · DOI

• The study suggests future research directions, including more complex adaptive AI development, multimodality integration, and longitudinal studies. The study opens the door to further research on the impact of AI-powered digital textbooks on teaching practice.

  Reconceptualizing geometry learning in teacher education: The role of AI-based digital books in developing spatial literacy and conceptual understanding · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the literature regarding the use of AI-based digital textbooks in mathematics education. The study aims to address this gap by examining the effect of an AI-based digital textbook on spatial literacy.

  Reconceptualizing geometry learning in teacher education: The role of AI-based digital books in developing spatial literacy and conceptual understanding · 2026 · DOI

• Traditional pedagogical frameworks within fine arts academies frequently prioritize superficial contour mapping over deep spatial-geometric analysis. The baseline inability of undergraduate students to project volumetric depth aligns directly with contemporary visual cognition theories.

  DEPICTING THE FIGURE IN COMPLEX POSES · 2026 · DOI

• While the sample size is modest, the study employed a full cohort design with total sampling over one academic year, which reflects the actual class size in this Islamic higher education context. Furthermore, the large effect size (Cohen’s d = 1.2) indicates is substantively meaningful despite the small sample. Additionally, the DDR framework, where the experimental phase prioritizes internal validity and the developed model rather than broad generalizability at this stage. observed difference testing of followed in-depth study that this the 6. CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION through iterative further validated Content validity was confirmed through an expert review (SCVI/Ave = 1.00), and its practicability was refinement. The established experimental evaluation the effectiveness of the learning system, showing a statistically significant improvement in spatial ability (t = 2.68, p = 0.017) with a large effect size (Cohen’s d = 1.2). These results indicate that the integrated model effectively supports spatial ability. This study contributes a validated learning model that uniquely combines three digital technologies–computer-aided design (CAD), 3D printing (additive manufacturing), and computational software–within a coherent learning design that unifies digital modelling, physical fabrication, and molecular energy analysis. This learning model can be adapted to other scientific domains that require spatial visualization and multi- representational understanding. The study also validates the good psychometric properties of the spatial ability instrument in the context of three- dimensional molecular aspects. Further research with a larger sample size is strongly recommended to ensure wider applicability.

  STEREOCHEMISTRY BASED MULTIMODAL DIGITAL LEARNING TO IMPROVE SPATIAL ABILITY IN ISLAMIC HIGHER EDUCATION · 2026 · DOI

• There is a gap in understanding how children's neighborhood knowledge differs from less to more redeveloped neighborhoods. Prior studies have not investigated this difference using cognitive mapping.

  Regeneration and children’s neighborhood knowledge: A cross-sectional cognitive mapping study in Istanbul · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should explore more complex environments that can better distinguish between different design intentions. Future research should examine how people reason about durably designed environments in different contexts.

  From chopped to cooked: Design and inference in physical environments · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Spatial Cognition and Navigation

• Mental Rotation of Three-Dimensional Objects · Science · 1971 · 4,420 citations
• Mental Rotations, a Group Test of Three-Dimensional Spatial Visualization · Perceptual and Motor Skills · 1978 · 1,965 citations
• The malleability of spatial skills: A meta-analysis of training studies. · Psychological Bulletin · 2012 · 1,439 citations
• Spatial ability for STEM domains: Aligning over 50 years of cumulative psychological knowledge solidifies its importance. · Journal of Educational Psychology · 2009 · 1,371 citations
• Human spatial abilities: Psychometric studies and environmental, genetic, hormonal, and neurological influences. · Psychological Bulletin · 1979 · 878 citations
• Differences in spatial knowledge acquired from maps and navigation · Cognitive Psychology · 1982 · 846 citations
• For whom is a picture worth a thousand words? Extensions of a dual-coding theory of multimedia learning. · Journal of Educational Psychology · 1994 · 715 citations
• Spatial abilities at different scales: Individual differences in aptitude-test performance and spatial-layout learning · Intelligence · 2005 · 661 citations
• A dissociation between mental rotation and perspective-taking spatial abilities · Intelligence · 2004 · 639 citations
• Gender differences in way-finding strategies: Relationship to spatial ability and spatial anxiety · Sex Roles · 1994 · 629 citations

Most recent work

• Accessibility Geometry v1.1: A Framework for Multi-Scale Observer Dynamics, Integration, and Future-State Navigation · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026
• From spatial construction to mathematics: Exploring the mediating role of visuospatial working memory. · Developmental Psychology · 2026
• The transfer effect of mental rotation training on arithmetic skill: The role of state anxiety and arithmetic strategy use. · Developmental Psychology · 2026
• The effect of AI-assisted activities on spatial thinking skills · Thinking Skills and Creativity · 2026
• Creating a topological home through radically hopeful undoings · Ethnic and Racial Studies · 2026
• Spatial skills in early childhood education · Learning and Instruction · 2026
• Mental space as an innate foundational structure for cognition: from quantities to events · Developmental Review · 2026
• Young children’s representation of local information (angle and length) for relocation. · Developmental Psychology · 2026
• A French Canadian adaptation and validation of the Vividness of Visual Imagery Questionnaire and Plymouth Sensory Imagery Questionnaire. · Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology / Revue canadienne de psychologie expérimentale · 2026
• The roles of cognitive abilities, instructions, and gaze patterns in navigational map-based route learning. · Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied · 2026

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