Open research questions in Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts

What the literature leaves open

• Future research should investigate the long-term effects of VR-based transformative experiences and explore their applicability across diverse and clinical populations.

  Understanding the Potential of Virtual Reality in Transformative Experiences: the Role of Epistemic Expansion and Positive Emotions · 2026 · DOI

• Abstract The effect of high-immersion virtual reality (HiVR) on second language (L2) learners’ socio-emotional responses has gained increasing attention in recent years, though findings remain mixed.

  The effect of high-immersion virtual reality environments on L2 learners’ socio-emotional variables: A meta-analysis · 2026 · DOI

• The development of techniques to replicate the visuals of old media in contemporary digital production is influenced by these findings, which also pave the way for further research on enhancing color characteristics, noise, and jitter to more closely resemble the behavior of analog signals.

  Using Blender 3D Node-Based Compositor to Replicate Video Home System Visual Analog · 2026 · DOI

• Thus, this study was limited to the survey questions and interview questions related to the usability of the VR Training program, herein. Thus, the focus of this research was limited to the firefighters’ subjective reactions to the system’s use.

  Advancing Firefighter Training through Online Virtual Reality: Firefighters’ Subjective Reactions · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies could examine how AI assistants in VR-EERs support or disrupt Teachers on a Mission: Experiencing and Evaluating a…1 3 1154 learning experiences, influence group interactions, and affect learners’ perceptions of col- laboration and discourse in immersive settings.

  Teachers on a Mission: Experiencing and Evaluating a Sustainability-Themed Virtual Reality Educational Escape Room for Language Learning · 2026 · DOI

• based geometry lessons. Quantitative data were collected through question- naires measuring engagement, visual-interactive features, and social presence. Qualitative follow-up interviews were conducted with five students. This study provides novel empirical evidence that metaverse environments, when designed with visual-gestural affordances, can effectively support inclusive STEM learning for DHH students, a population often underrepresented in edu- cational technology research. Practical design principles for accessible metaverse instruction are discussed. Students reported high engagement (M = 4.62), positive perceptions of visual- interactive features (M = 4.51), and strong social presence (M = 4.58). They val- ued 3D object manipulation, avatar customization, and spatial exploration, re- porting that these features enhanced engagement and interest. A comparatively lower score for sustained attention (M = 4.10) indicated that visually rich envi- ronments require careful scaffolding to manage cognitive load. Accessibility should be embedded from the outset. Interactive features such as 3D objects and avatars should serve clear pedagogical purposes. Collaborative tools should be intentionally structured with explicit task guidance. Teachers should provide explicit guidance, model navigation strategies, and introduce tools gradually. Future work should incorporate comparison conditions, longitudinal designs, and achievement-based measures. Researchers should investigate individual dif- ferences such as prior technology experience, working memory capacity, and communication preferences. The findings demonstrate potential for metaverse-based learning to support both conceptual understanding and social inclusion for DHH learners, contrib- uting to more equitable and rigorous STEM education. Future studies should include larger, more diverse cohorts across schools and contexts, examine how avatar customization shapes motivation and identity, and evaluate advanced accessibility supports such as AI-supported signing ava- tars, gesture recognition, and adaptive captioning.

  Multimodal Learning in a Metaverse-Based Geometry Environment: Engagement and Social Presence Among Deaf and Hard-Of-Hearing Students · 2026 · DOI

• for Practitioners Mental health practitioners may consider portable VR serious games as sup- plementary tools to support exposure-oriented activities, particularly in non- clinical or resource-limited settings, provided they are integrated into appro- priate clinical frameworks.

  Design and Usability Evaluation of a Portable VR Serious Game for Adolescent Social Anxiety · 2026 · DOI

• By demonstrating the feasibility of a portable, engaging VR-based system, this research highlights the potential of immersive technologies to expand access to mental health support for adolescents, especially in underserved contexts. Future studies may build on this work by conducting larger-scale, longitudinal investigations to examine clinical outcomes and sustain user engagement. The design framework applied in this study, integrating CBT-informed exposure 2 Pattiasina, Rosyid, Handayani, Junaedi, Trianto, Sutjiadi, Sena, & Soedargo with social learning theory and Bloom’s revised taxonomy, may also be adapted for the development of similar VR-based serious games in other ado- lescent mental health contexts.

  Design and Usability Evaluation of a Portable VR Serious Game for Adolescent Social Anxiety · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should address these limitations by employing random sampling to enhance external validity, collecting data on students’ prior immersive VR expe- rience and their perceptions of the design interface, and incorporating qualitative methods to gain deeper insights into learners’ subjective experiences.

  Immersive virtual reality versus interactive video: comparing the impact on learning outcomes, motivation, and engagement among college students · 2026 · DOI

• It does not account for external variables such as individual digital literacy or physical fatigue that may arise from extended use of VR devices. Second, the generalizability of these findings is limited by the sample size and the specific subject context. Additionally, students’ affective and psychomotor aspects within social classroom interactions during the use of immersive media have not been explored in depth, even though they are critical components of a comprehensive educational ecosystem.

  Improving students cognitive learning outcomes in computer systems learning through unity-based virtual reality media · 2026 · DOI

• 7 Limitations There are several limitations of this study that should be considered when interpreting the results. for NPC responses, Fourth, WebXR should be explored as a way to implement cross-platform accessibility for the HMF to enable access to the framework via standard web browsers on smartphones and desktops the potential user base to include those who do not own dedicated VR headsets. One limitation is that the Hybrid Metaverse Framework (HMF) was limited to a specific physical area on the APU campus (i. The issue of how prospect students should be able to interact with staff is an under-researched area in the literature on virtual campus tours. These measures were used to help inform survey design, but since they were not administered formally with the participants in this study, the results are limited in their ability to be compared with other studies in the field.

  Developing a hybrid metaverse framework for interactive and gamified virtual campus tours · 2026 · DOI

• This finding also pro- vides contradictory evidence to the immersion principle which suggests immersive learning environments should follow established principles of multimedia design to promote better student learning outcomes (Makransky, 2021).

  Impacts of segmenting principle on learner performance and attitude in a 3D environment: a mixed-method multiple case study · 2026 · DOI

• (Nurbekova et al., 2025; Nurzhan et al., 2025). for Similarly, recent methodological frameworks developed for AI-based educational environments emphasize the importance of structured instructional design, learner support mechanisms, and adaptive learning pathways, which may also inform future VR-based computer science education initiatives (Rakhmetov et al., 2026). The findings also indicate that professional development for teachers should be school-based, practice-oriented, and directly connected to computer science lesson planning. A possible training model may include four stages.

  Methodological foundations of virtual reality integration in primary computer science education: a brief research report · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should focus on empirical studies to measure the impact of immersive discourses on sustainability competencies. Additionally, there is a scarcity of high-quality, curriculum-aligned content and a lack of standardized methods for evaluating its pedagogical effectiveness, leading to inconsistent learning outcomes.

  Bridging Gaps and Building Futures: The Application of Immersive Technologies in Constructing Discourse for Sustainable Education · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies should consider the use of a standardized, self-administered questionnaire to mitigate this potential bias. The specific contribution of the vibration stimulus should be examined in a condition without vibration. Third, the accuracy of finger-position tracking in the VST was insufficient to guarantee true fingertip-to-fingertip contact.

  A methodological study of virtual self-touch: effects on perception and motor control strategies · 2026 · DOI

• increased the methodological transparency of the study and confirmed the suitability of the developed tool for studying student engagement in immersive learning of digital literacy using virtual reality in Kazakhstan. 3.3 Construct validity 150 from respondents educational organizations in Kazakhstan participated in the evaluation of the tool aimed at studying the perception of immersive learning of digital literacy and student engagement. The sample included students from different fields of study and levels of study, which made it possible to consider the peculiarities of perception of a VRoriented educational environment in an educational context. Of the 150 undergraduate university students, 58% were women and 42% were men. The average age of the respondents was 21.4 years (SD = 2.7).

  Validation of a tool for assessing undergraduate university students’ perceptions and engagement in virtual reality-based digital literacy education · 2026 · DOI

• We limited our analysis to 24 undergraduate civil engineering students within a single VR heat-stress safety training scenario. While our optimization pipeline demonstrated strong internal validity and theoretical coherence, the generalizability to broader pop- ulations, professional trainees, and alternative VR training domains requires further empirical validation. The classification performance achieved within this controlled context may be limited when transferring to more heterogeneous learner populations or complex training scenarios with different microgenetic learning states. Although our KL-penalized feature selection successfully identified three optimal behavioral dimensions (freq_expert, freq_novice, avg_duration) that capture essen- tial learning patterns with 66% computational efficiency improvement, the exclusive focus on behavioral indicators may miss critical affective, physiological, or meta- cognitive dimensions of learning progression. The window-level fit score of 0.967 and KL divergence of 3.9855 indicate improved but still imperfect posterior predic- tive validity and should be interpreted as preliminary evidence of generative coher- ence rather than a comprehensive learning assessment. Posterior predictive checking therefore classifies the current generative specification as a preliminary model that warrants further refinement (e.g., additional features or alternative priors) before being used for high-stakes diagnostic decisions. Although the inference time of our Behaviormetrika1 3 trained models is well below 5ms per window in offline profiling, our data were col- lected and coded entirely offline, and we did not evaluate end-to-end latency for an automated pipeline. As such, our claims regarding real-time use should be interpreted as a feasibility indication for future work. The observed high state persistence (96.7% self-loops) raises important questions about optimal temporal granularity for detecting learning transitions, as our 15-sec- ond windows may capture within-state behavioral consistency rather than between- state transitions, potentially explaining the stability patterns that diverge from traditional microgenetic findings. This strong stability may reflect three possibilities: (1) the unique affordances of immersive VR learning that promote sustained focus, (2) the specific temporal dynamics of safety training where sustained attention is pri- oritized over exploratory strategy switching, or (3) methodological artifacts arising from our chosen window size. Future research should systematically explore multi- scale temporal analysis (5-second to 5-minute windows) to distinguish genuine learn- ing stability from measurement artifacts. Additionally, the current analysis focused exclusively on within-session dynamics and did not examine skill transfer, retention, or learning progression across multiple VR training sessions, making longitudinal validation essential to determine whether the identified learner archetypes (Expert- dominant, Novice-persistent, Balanced Progressors) represent stable individual dif- ferences or temporary patterns specific to initial VR exposure. Appendix 1 Mapping of Behavioral Codes to Latent States via Q-Matrix.

  Decoding immersive learning States: A reproducible microgenetic pipeline for behavioral data in virtual reality safety training · 2026 · DOI

• Impact on Society: By making underexplored heritage accessible and engaging, task-based VR can strengthen cultural identity, support preservation efforts, and create new, meaningful opportunities for museums and tourism.

  Enhancing Cultural Learning Through Virtual Reality: A Case Study of the ‘Ain Ghazal Statues · 2026 · DOI

• Interest in leveraging emotions in Interactive Digital Narrative (IDN) has been growing, and Virtual Reality (VR) offers rich access to real-time biometric data such as facial expressions; yet this capability remains underexplored in novel IDN design.

  Fostering Emotional Perspective-Taking: An Exploration of Affective Face-Tracking Interactions in the VR Narrative Rekindle · 2026

• Third, we completed the whole semester's follow-up study in the real college physical education teaching scene, which completely preserved the natural “noise” and rhythm fluctuation in the classroom, ensured the authenticity and applicability of the research results, and, at the same time, also made clear the limitations of this study, such as the narrow sample range and the single sports involved.

  Virtual Reality Confined Space Training System · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this meta-analysis, several recommendations can be made to strengthen the integration of virtual reality (VR) in nursing education. First, educators should consider incorporating VR early in the learning process to harness its strong motivational benefits, which may enhance student engagement and readiness for more complex clinical tasks. VR activities should be paired with structured debriefing sessions and guided reflection to maximize cognitive and skill transfer. Second, curriculum designers are encouraged to adopt VR as a complementary tool rather than a standalone replacement for learning, and competency-based assessment can create a more holistic and immersive learning environment. training. Blending VR with simulation labs, case-based traditional Third, future research should focus on improving methodological rigor by using randomized designs, consistent assessment tools, and detailed reporting of intervention characteristics. Longer exposure periods and multi-session VR training should be explored to determine whether extended practice leads to stronger gains in knowledge and skills. Finally, institutions should invest in accessible and scalable VR technologies, provide training for faculty, and evaluate usability to ensure effective implementation. By addressing these areas, VR can be more fully leveraged to enhance learning outcomes and better prepare nursing students for clinical practice.

  Virtual Reality-Enhanced Nursing Education: Meta-Analytic Evidence on Knowledge, Skills, and Motivation · 2026 · DOI

• This meta-analysis has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the number of included studies was relatively small, which restricts the generalizability of the findings and reduces the precision of subgroup analyses. Second, substantial heterogeneity existed across studies in terms of VR technologies, clinical topics, intervention durations, and assessment tools. Although a random-effects model was used to account for variability, these differences may still influence the pooled estimates. Third, many studies employed quasi-experimental designs or lacked detailed reporting on randomization and blinding procedures, contributing to some concerns in the risk-of-bias assessment. Fourth, most studies relied on short-term post-test measures, limiting understanding of the long-term effects of VR on knowledge retention and clinical skill performance. Finally, publication bias cannot be entirely ruled out due to the small number of studies, even though funnel plots showed no significant asymmetry. Overall, these limitations highlight the need for more rigorous, well-designed randomized trials and more consistent reporting practices to strengthen future evidence on the effectiveness of VR in nursing education.

  Virtual Reality-Enhanced Nursing Education: Meta-Analytic Evidence on Knowledge, Skills, and Motivation · 2026 · DOI

• Scientific field limiting “Business, Management and Accounting” : (N= 1,673) Document type limitation “Article, conference paper, review” : (N= 1,239) with bibliographic datasets from databases such as Sco- pus, Web of Science, and PubMed, allowing efficient analysis and visualization of publication data [73]. By contrast, bibliometrix is a quantitative framework and R package used to analyze trends in scholarly lit- erature, scientific publications, and academic commu- nication [4]. Through the bibliometrix package (and its biblioshiny interface), researchers can conduct analyses of publication trends, citation structures, co-authorship networks [132], keyword patterns, journal impact indica- tors [110], and geographic distributions, as well as per- form data integration and bibliometric mapping [36]. The package imports and organizes bibliographic data from sources such as Web of Science and Scopus [38]. It also supports the identification of prolific authors, the evolu- tion of research topics, and the structural characteristics of scholarly fields [21]. In addition, bibliometrix can be used to identify influential publications, analyze regional patterns, and extract and examine keyword relationships from academic documents [100]. As a result, bibliometric tools such as bibliometrix are frequently used to evalu- ate research development, identify emerging trends, and support decisions related to collaboration and resource allocation.

  The impact of metaverse on global business dynamics: a 36-year bibliometric review and future research direction · 2026 · DOI

• 3.3 Science mapping and co- occurrence analysis The science mapping analysis of the 1,583-article dataset identified distinct thematic clusters within VRET research, encompassing clinical application domains, methodological frameworks, and participant characteristics. As shown in Figure 6, the keyword co-occurrence network revealed three interconnected clusters that reflect the multidimensional nature of VRET scholarship. Network analysis based on betweenness centrality metrics demonstrated that core VRET concepts function as the primary conceptual bridges linking these three thematic domains.

  Virtual reality exposure therapy: a systematic review and bibliometric analysis of clinical applications and research trends · 2026 · DOI

• As illustrated in the figures, we observed considerable inter- individual variability, with some participants reporting illu- sory motion and discomfort even in the absence of visual Virtual Reality (2026) 30:89 1 3 motion. These effects were not associated with VR experi- ence, age, dance training, or motion sickness susceptibil- ity, but Illusory Movement was negatively correlated with musical training. Future research could investigate whether fine-grained perceptual abilities such as beat, timing, or asynchrony detection could account for the variability in individual responses. The study used brief 8-second trials to balance partici- pant comfort with the need for multiple repetitions across eight conditions. While appropriate for capturing rapid sub- jective impressions, this design limits conclusions about sustained vection or VIMS, which typically require longer exposures (Kooijman et al. 2024). To more effectively test the difference between Isochronous and Non-isochronous visual motion, future studies should determine perceptual thresholds for detecting temporal regularity and extend trial durations to allow entrainment and potential cross-modal conflicts to accumulate. Additionally, testing populations with heightened rhythmic sensitivity such as dancers or expert musicians may help clarify the impact of tempo- ral incongruence on comfort and vection in immersive environments. Another avenue for future work involves refining the manipulation of temporal incongruence. While our use of prime-number-based jitter successfully disrupted beat align- ment in the visual motion signal, this manipulation alters both temporal predictability and the degree of cross-modal mismatch. Other temporal manipulations, such as variations in inter-beat-interval differences or fixed phase offsets, may offer additional insights (Calude 2002; Hennig 2014). Sys- tematically varying the structure of non-isochronous motion could help clarify how different types of misalignment between visual and auditory streams differentially influence vection and discomfort. For instance, future studies could examine whether these effects are driven by reduced pre- dictability, tested through increasing temporal irregularity, or by sensory conflict, such as phase offsets or misalignment between isochronous streams.

  Cross-modal synchrony between music and visual motion modulates vection, urge to move, and comfort in VR · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Virtual Reality Applications and Impacts

• The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): a Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality · Educational Psychology Review · 2021 · 1,000 citations
• What is XR? Towards a Framework for Augmented and Virtual Reality · Computers in Human Behavior · 2022 · 810 citations
• Metaverse as a disruptive technology revolutionising tourism management and marketing · Tourism Management · 2023 · 764 citations
• Immersive technology: A meta-analysis of augmented/virtual reality applications and their impact on tourism experience · Tourism Management · 2022 · 494 citations
• The Effects of Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, and Mixed Reality as Training Enhancement Methods: A Meta-Analysis · Human Factors The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society · 2020 · 461 citations
• Systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis on virtual reality and education · Education and Information Technologies · 2022 · 434 citations
• Investigating the effect of pre-training when learning through immersive virtual reality and video: A media and methods experiment · Computers & Education · 2019 · 391 citations
• Social interactions in the metaverse: Framework, initial evidence, and research roadmap · Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science · 2022 · 332 citations
• A study of how immersion and interactivity drive VR learning · Computers & Education · 2022 · 317 citations
• Benefits of Taking a Virtual Field Trip in Immersive Virtual Reality: Evidence for the Immersion Principle in Multimedia Learning · Educational Psychology Review · 2022 · 289 citations

Most recent work

• Hatsune Miku as the Optimal Entity for the Metaverse Concert Economy: Three Observations That Complete the Dual-Layer Civilization Model · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026
• The Dual Commerce Model of the Metaverse: Concert Economy and Fashion Economy as Structural Complements · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026
• Color discrimination in action: High-throughput measurement in immersive VR · bioRxiv · 2026
• Physiological Responses to Virtual Reality‐Based Stress Regulation and Relaxation Interventions: A Systematic Review · Stress and Health · 2026
• Assessing the Impact of Virtual Reality, Augmented Reality, and Video Games on Improving Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · INQUIRY The Journal of Health Care Organization Provision and Financing · 2026
• Enhancing Global Artificial Intelligence Literacy, Innovation and Entrepreneurship Through an Exploratory Cross-Cultural Study: Interactions With Pedagogical Agents in Immersive Virtual Reality Environments · Journal of Educational Computing Research · 2026
• From virtual to reality: A systematic review of the impact of virtual reality on skill acquisition, retention, and transfer · Educational Research Review · 2026
• Design and Usability Evaluation of a Portable VR Serious Game for Adolescent Social Anxiety · Journal of Information Technology Education Innovations in Practice · 2026
• Medical Students’ Experiences With Virtual Reality Simulation Training: Qualitative Study · JMIR Medical Education · 2026
• Development and Initial Evaluation of Specific Immersive Competence in Virtual Reality–Based Medical Assessments: Exploratory Observational Study · JMIR Medical Education · 2026

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