Open research questions in Digital literacy in education

What the literature leaves open

• Limitation: The research was limited to the Develop stage of the 4-D model and therefore did not include field testing or the Disseminate stage. Consequently, evidence regarding the instruments' practicality, construct validity, and effectiveness in real classroom settings has not yet been established.

  Validity of Instruments for Assessing Numeration, Digital, and Cultural Literacy Skills for Class VII Junior High School Students · 2026 · DOI

• However, despite substantial investments in ICT infrastructure and teacher training in Kenya, the extent to which teachers' technological knowledge contributes to ICT integration in CBE classrooms remains inadequately understood, particularly in marginalised regions such as Turkana County.

  Teachers’ Acquisition of Technological Knowledge Through Professional Development and the Level of ICT Integration in Competency-Based Education Classrooms in Public Primary Schools in Turkana County · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings, the study recommended that the Ministry of Education and Training strengthen the implementation of ICT policies by improving digital infrastructure, internet connectivity, electricity supply, and access to modern technological resources, particularly in underserved schools. Additionally, it advocates for continuous professional development programmes to enhance Geography teachers’ technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge, with emphasis on Geography-specific digital tools and emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence. School leadership should foster supportive environments by promoting the pedagogical use of digital technologies, reviewing restrictive policies on educational smartphone use, and ensuring regular maintenance of ICT resources. Furthermore, Geography teachers are encouraged to engage in continuous professional learning to strengthen their digital competencies, while future research should expand the scope of investigation to other districts and educational contexts in Lesotho to generate broader evidence on the effectiveness of digital technology integration in Geography education.

  Digital Technology Integration in Geography Teaching in Lesotho: Insights from Secondary School Geography Teachers and Learners · 2026 · DOI

• Formal expert panel content validation was not conducted during this phase, representing a procedural limitation that future studies should address. Importantly, future research should investigate the relationship between AITET scores and actual AI usage be Several limitations of the present study warrant acknowledgement.

  Beyond Technology Acceptance: Validating a Multidimensional AI Integration Readiness Scale for Teacher Educators · 2026 · DOI

• This study emphasises the pivotal role of the TPACK framework in preparing PSTs for 21st-century classrooms, particularly in integrating technology into mathematics teaching. Based on the findings and alignment with the TPACK framework, the following suggestions are proposed: The study further highlights several critical issues and debates surrounding the preparation of PSTs for integrating technology into mathematics instruction. Based on the findings and theoretical insights, the following suggestions are made: • Systematically embedding TPACK and SAMR in Teacher Education Programmes: Teacher education programmes should systematically adopt the TPACK framework to align CK, PK, and TK complemented by the SAMR model into respective curricula. Also, to move beyond superficial tool exposure, teacher educators need to provide structured opportunities for PSTs to select, combine and critically evaluate digital tools in relation to specific STEM concepts and learner needs. By embracing this integrated model, PSTs can develop a holistic understanding of how to utilise technology to transform teaching practices effectively. • Advancing Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK): Building on Shulman’s (1986) emphasis on PCK, programmes must focus on helping PSTs transform STEM into subject matter knowledge locally teachable, meaningful tools, such as virtual forms. Digital manipulatives, dynamic geometry software, visual simulations and multilingual OERs, can be used to address common misconceptions and respond to multilingual classroom realities. In South Africa, this includes utilising technology fostering to overcome challenges and meaningful student engagement with STEM concepts. • Develop teacher educators’ own digital, AI and open resource literacies: Institutions should invest in ongoing professional development that strengthens teacher educators’ TPACK, particularly in relation to emerging tools. Collaborative professional learning communities can create spaces for teacher educators to experiment with digital tools, co-design technology-rich STEM tasks, critically interrogate products of AI and share teaching.

  A TPACK-informed study on equipping pre-service teachers with digital tools, artificial intelligence and open educational resources: Integrated strategies in STEM education · 2026 · DOI

• Therefore, future research is recommended to involve broader populations, apply longitudinal and mixed-methods approaches, and test SEL intervention programs experimentally.

  The Influence of Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) in Understanding the Concept of Digital Citizenship · 2026 · DOI

• The limitations of this study lie in its complete reliance on secondary sources (literature review), meaning the findings have not been validated through direct empirical data from the field. This study confirms that current codes of ethics and regulations are insufficient to protect teachers from various risks, including psychological risks such as burnout and digital fatigue, as well as professional risks such as criminalization for disciplinary actions that are actually educational in nature.

  Between Empathy and Privacy: Redefining The Ethical Boundaries of Teachers in The Age of Unlimited Connectivity · 2026 · DOI

• Effective integration of e-textbooks requires a coordinated strategy that addresses both pedagogical and infrastructural realities. First, educational institutions should prioritise comprehensive and ongoing teacher training that extends beyond technical orientation to include strategies for embedding etextbooks meaningfully in instructional practice. Such training should support teachers in developing digital reading pedagogies, designing multimodal learning experiences, and modelling the effective use of e-textbook features. Access to support structures—such as computer labs, instructional technologists, and digital mentors—can enhance this process. Second, institutions must ensure that the physical and digital infrastructure is sufficient to support equitable access. This includes increasing the number of power outlets in classrooms, investing in portable charging solutions, and expanding access to devices through school-owned hardware or financial support initiatives. Ensuring that students have consistent access to a comprehensive digital library of e-textbooks is essential for meaningful participation and engagement.27 Third, educational institutions should establish clear guidelines and best practices for e-textbook use. These may include protocols for hardware and software selection, processes for content updates, and consultation mechanisms that involve teachers in decision-making. 28 Involving teachers early fosters ownership and reduces resistance to change, thereby promoting more sustainable adoption. Finally, interactive technologies and collaborative digital tasks should be integrated into etextbook use to enhance learner engagement. Teachers, school leaders, and parents must work together 25 Mohd. Elmagzoub Eltahir, Sami Al-Qatawneh, and Najeh Alsalhi, “E-Textbooks and Their Application Levels, from the Perspective of Faculty Members at Ajman University, U.A.E.,” International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning (IJET) 14, no. 13 (July 15, 2019): 88, https://doi.org/10.3991/ijet.v14i13.9489. 26 Eltahir, Al-Qatawneh, and Alsalhi, “E-Textbooks and Their Application Levels, from the Perspective of Faculty Members at Ajman University, U.A.E.” 27 Vorotnykova, “Organizational, Psychological and Pedagogical Conditions for the Use of E-Books and e-Textbooks at School.” 28 Kim Roberts, Angela Benson, and Jamie Mills, “E-Textbook Technology: Are Instructors Using It and What Is the Impact on Student Learning?,” Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching & Learning 14, no. 3 (November 26, 2021): 329–44, https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIT-04-2021-0028.

  Integrating e-textbooks in South African classrooms: A systematic literature review of implementation barriers and educational potential · 2026 · DOI

• ● The Department of Basic Education and the Department of Communications and Digital Technologies (DCDT) must collaborate to expand the reach of broadband infrastructure in rural areas. This includes exploring various technologies such as fiber optics, satellite internet, and TV white spaces to provide cost-effective connectivity. ● The DBE should invest in training initiatives that empower teachers to become facilitators of digital learning, capable of leveraging technology to create engaging and interactive lessons. ● The DBE should develop policies that mandate minimum standards for digital resources in schools, allocate funding specifically for technology integration, and address issues of digital safety and responsible online behaviour. ● DBE must implement strong policy frameworks which require collaboration among various stakeholders, namely provincial Departments of Education, school Governing Bodies and Parent Teacher Associations.

  The role of technology in bridging the educational gap in rural South African high schools: The case of Lebopo Circuit, Capricorn District, Limpopo Province · 2026 · DOI

• This study examined the relationship between teachers’ digital literacy skills and the teaching of mathematics in public lower primary schools in Kanduyi Sub-County, Kenya. The findings indicate that although most teachers demonstrated moderate digital competence, notable weaknesses in advanced applications such as existed tools, which are spreadsheets and database data-driven and interactive for essential mathematics instruction. Importantly, the study established a statistically significant moderate positive correlation (r = .567, p < .01) between teachers’ digital literacy and mathematics learning activities. This provides empirical evidence within the Kenyan lower primary context that stronger teacher digital competencies are learner participation, engagement, and mathematics performance. associated with improved to strengthen Given this evidence, targeted interventions are necessary teacher capacity.

  Teacher Digital Skills and Teaching of Mathematics Subject in Lower Primary · 2026 · DOI

• Originality/value By extending TLT into digitally enhanced, futures-oriented education, this study contributes novel insights from the underexplored Saudi Arabian context.

  Teaching tomorrow: rethinking futures literacy in higher education through immersive technologies · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could address this limitation by incor- porating student self-assessment instruments, diagnostic performance-based tasks, or mixed assessment models that combine teacher, student, and observational data. Future studies may focus on piloting the program in diverse school contexts, exam- ining learning outcomes through systematic assessment strategies, and exploring its adaptability to different grade levels or educational systems. Several limitations of this study should be acknowledged. In addition, this study was limited to the design phase of the instructional pro- gram and did not include an empirical implementation or effectiveness evaluation.

  A digital competence training program design based on DigComp 2.1 · 2026 · DOI

• A limitation of this study is its small sample size, comprising five courses and 24 interviews, which can only represent the views reported by these informants. Therefore, we have aimed at making a contribution that caters for this gap in the literature and provides a springboard to other researchers to make use of entangled pedagogies in their own contexts.

  Integrating digital technologies and pedagogies: the importance of considering technology affordances · 2026 · DOI

• Comparing different approaches to ICT co-ordination 55 57 28 42 19 35 44 44 CO-ORDINATING THE USE OF DIGITAL TOOLS AT THE SCHOOL LEVEL © OECD 2026  7 1 Introduction: Why ICT co- ordination? Despite having had a transformative impact on society and the daily lives of billions, the extent that digital tools have shaped education is an open question.

  Co-ordinating the use of digital tools at the school level · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should focus on longitudinal studies examining long-term stability of digital competence development, multi-institutional comparative studies, and teacher digital interaction between student competence, analysis of competence, and institutional digital ecosystems. the Further research is also needed to investigate adaptive and AI-supported digital learning environments as tools for personalized competence development.

  Digital competence development of social-interaction specialists within higher education · 2026 · DOI

• To build on these findings, the following recommendations are organised into two sections: the practical implications for higher education institutions; and future research avenues to further explore the integrations of IL in digital environments. JIL, 2026, 20(1). http://dx.doi.org/10.11645/20.1.817 Casas-Puente 85 6.1 Practical implications The gap that emerges from the wide availability of digital information and its effective use continues to be a problem that must be addressed, and this is extremely relevant since it indicates the urgent need to integrate IL throughout the curriculum. Rather than instructing, as is the case in most academic programmes in IL in a transversal way and in some independent subjects, they should instead be framed as explicit constructed competencies within each discipline. Therefore, the fundamental stages of any training should incorporate instruction focused on cultivating critical questions and responsibly employing the information detected. Promoting a highly impactful and adaptable Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) on digital and IL skills could be a positive step, because it could reduce existing inequalities and provide an option of access to people marginalised from formal education. On the other hand, higher education institutions should continue to promote this type of action, employing attractive formats to promote the culture of critical reflective practice on controversial health, policy, and education issues to maintain advocacy within the community. Educators and library staff are not exempt since they must promote and participate in a change in the new pedagogy and provide students with tools that allow them to take the step from passive consumers of information to empowered and informed critical thinkers. 6.2 Future Lines of Research This research leaves new avenues open, for example, in studies that examine learners as cases in research on information-seeking behaviours. Attention should be paid to the intersection of digital algorithms that capture students' socio-political information in a closed retrieval system. More broadly, structured proximal environments that shape students’ digital habits should be examined. Most importantly, future work should encompass assessing the impact of MOOCs and media campaigns on IL skills, both traditional and online, as well as media and digital literacy skills. Evaluating these interventions within the framework of a research agenda would help to streamline these silos and justify the consolidation of their components into official organisational frameworks.

  Digital literacy challenges in higher education · 2026 · DOI

• Against the backdrop of vocational education's digital transformation and the persistent gaps in theoretical integration, empirical validation and contextual implementation guidance, this study developed and validated an integrated theoretical framework for enhancing vocational teachers' digital literacy through a systematic intervention grounded in TPACK and industry-education integration principles. Using a rigorous quasi-experimental pretest–post-test matched-group design, the study addressed three research questions. Baseline analyses confirmed equivalence across all dimensions, establishing a robust foundation for evaluation. The 10-week intervention substantially improved all dimensions, particularly IPCK and DCCK, demonstrating effectiveness in developing both foundational and integrative competencies. Regression analyses indicated that effects persisted after controlling for demographic factors, though with notable interaction effects between intervention and teacher characteristics. Building on these findings, this study offers three layers of contribution. Theoretically, this study advances educational technology theory by enriching TPACK framework's application in vocational education contexts, establishing longitudinal methodological foundations and enhancing contextual understanding of technology integration. Practically, it provides evaluation tools, modular training approaches and localised strategies. Internationally, the framework demonstrates transferability across institutional arrangements, digital maturity levels and resource conditions. Despite these contributions, some limitations warrant consideration. First, although the quasi- experimental design with a control group strengthens internal validity, the 10-week intervention may be insufficient for developing complex competencies such as DICC and DTIC, which require sustained practice and systemic support. Second, while quantitative measures revealed significant effects, the absence of qualitative data limits understanding of how teachers integrate digital competencies into practice and the barriers they encounter. Third, while the framework demonstrates effectiveness in the Chinese vocational education context, its validation in other vocational educational contexts remains to be examined. Future research could employ longer interventions to track competency development trajectories more comprehensively. Mixed-methods approaches would provide deeper insights into developmental processes and contextual factors influencing different competency dimensions. Cross-context validation studies could assess the framework's adaptability and culture-specific requirements. Finally, examining institutional support mechanisms and designing targeted strategies for enhancing collaborative and innovative teaching competencies would strengthen the framework's practical utility. Overall, this study presents an empirically grounded and theoretically integrative framework for enhancing vocational teachers' digital literacy by bridging TPACK with industry–education integration principles. The findings demonstrate how structured, modular professional development can support differentiated competence growth within digitally transforming vocational systems. By situating teacher digital literacy at the intersection of pedagogy, industry relevance and institutional context, this study offers a scalable reference for future research and policy-oriented teacher development.

  Digital literacy development of vocational college teachers: An industry-integrated TPACK framework and intervention study · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the study’s findings, the following recommendations were made: • Train teachers on how to use digital curricula effectively in Jordan. • Develop and implement strategies and plans for the continuous development and monitoring of digital curricula in Jordan, which are future-oriented and keep pace with technological advancements. • Conduct further studies on digital curricula in Jordan. • Design programs to enhance teachers’ attitudes toward digital curricula. • Provide financial support to properly implement curricula in the digital learning environment. 338 BIODATA and CONTACT ADDRESSES of AUTHORS Dr. Ahmad Bani MARI received his PhD in Islamic Education Curriculum and Teaching Methods in March 2017. His academic interests include conducting scientific research on Islamic education and its teaching methods, the application of artificial intelligence in Islamic education, educational multimedia, learning interfaces, open and distance learning, the future of education, e-learning, and the use of the internet in education. He has published more than 11 articles in international journals, contributed a chapter to an international book, and has also published other articles and research papers both nationally and internationally, in addition to participating in local and international conferences.

  TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF DIGITAL CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION IN JORDAN · 2026 · DOI

• This study has investigated the utilisation of digital tools in teaching writing among English lecturers in tertiary institutions in South-East, Nigeria.

  Utilisation of Digital Tools in Teaching Writing Among English Lecturers in Tertiary Institutions in South-East, Nigeria · 2026 · DOI

• Additionally, the study provides empirical evidence of the limited magnitude of AI-related effects, thereby addressing an important gap in the literature where AI is often assumed to exert strong influence without sufficient consideration of effect size and explanatory power.

  Multi-group analysis of the impact of artificial intelligence tools on research engagement among higher education students in Nigeria · 2026 · DOI

• While alignment between the KEM and TPACK Framework was rated as slightly less problematic than other areas, it still represents a significant challenge that warrants attention.

  EVALUATING THE EFFICACY OF INSTITUTIONAL WORKSHOPS ON EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION IN A SOUTH AFRICAN HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTION · 2026 · DOI

• The digital inequality in the study is argued to have two aspects: internet infrastructure and online training and support for practitioners. Our study reveals that OIP made crucial contributions to PTs' digital skills but also led to digital inequality for both students and PTs, as they faced issues with internet infrastructure and a lack of necessary equipment. Furthermore, they did not receive adequate training or support for online education. Internet infrastructure problems, such as outages and low speeds, are considered the core cause of digital inequality, yet students, parents, teachers, and academics have nothing to do with them. Internet services supplied by companies countrywide are part of public services. At the end of the day, all internet service providers are considered commercial companies, but they also serve on behalf of the state. For that reason, internet quality nationwide should be ensured by telecommunications companies and internet service providers, and states should also regulate it through additional laws and regulations. Disasters or crises such as earthquakes, floods, and pandemics should be treated as matters of the sustainability of public duties and responsibilities rather than of commercial activities. So, the current study suggests that policymakers should reorganise the telecommunications sector to meet the needs of states of emergency and require suppliers to meet certain criteria through regulations for such emergencies. The second aspect is the lack of adequate training in online education for PTs, academics, and mentor teachers. This issue remains a major reason, as insufficient training hinders digital capability and leaves you behind. Hence, the current study recommends that adequate training be provided for all education stakeholders; furthermore, a lesson entitled “Online Education in States of Emergency” should be added to the curriculum for teaching faculties. Such a lesson is considered necessary not only for the pandemic but also for other disasters, such as earthquakes, floods, storms, and fires.

  WHAT REMAINS OF TEACHERS’ INTERNSHIP PRACTICES DURING THE PANDEMIC: IMPROVED DIGITAL SKILLS OR DIGITAL INEQUALITY? · 2026 · DOI

• Future research on digital competence assessment should extend the present findings along several key directions. First, longitudinal designs are needed to trace developmental trajectories and examine causal relations between digital competence and downstream academic or professional outcomes. Such designs would clarify how competence evolves over time and how it shapes learning and employability. Second, future iterations of the yDSI should incorporate critical digital skills, those necessary for ethical, responsible, and reflective participation in increasingly intelligent digital environments. Integrating these competencies would produce a more comprehensive skill profile aligned with contemporary expectations of digital citizenship. Third, predictive analyses should be extended beyond self-efficacy and technology affinity to include outcomes such as academic performance, employability indicators, and digital well-being. These additions would deepen understanding of the broader implications of digital competence and strengthen its relevance for educational and labor-market policy. Finally, emerging competencies, AI literacy, cybersecurity awareness, and data ethics, should be integrated into future versions of the yDSI to ensure continued alignment with evolving digital education frameworks and global competence models.

  Modeling digital competence in education: A bifactor-ESEM approach to general and domain-specific skills · 2026 · DOI

• 1. School administrators may allocate resources for internet connectivity, digital tools, publication software, equipment, and protected editorial time for school paper advisers. 2. Campus journalism supervisors may implement district-level training programs focused on information and data literacy, source verification, fact-checking, attribution, analytics interpretation, and audience-engagement strategies. 3. School paper advisers may institutionalize content calendars, shared editorial platforms, publication trackers, role matrices, and documented review procedures to strengthen workflow consistency and deadline compliance. 4. Schools may provide recurring practical workshops, peer-review sessions, and differentiated coaching to improve the writing, editing, layout, multimedia, and ethical decision-making skills of student-journalists. 5. Digital-safety protocols may be strengthened through secure file storage, responsible social-media guidelines, privacy awareness, and clear procedures for protecting student information and newsroom accounts. 6. Future researchers may examine administrative support, funding, adviser workload, learner participation, infrastructure, press freedom, and other factors that may explain campus journalism practices beyond digital expertise.

  Digital Expertise and Campus Journalism Practices Among Advisers in Davao Central District · 2026 · DOI

• This study has several limitations that should be considered when interpreting the findings. First, the review included only peer-reviewed journal articles indexed in Scopus and Web of Science, which may have resulted in database selection bias and the exclusion of relevant studies in other sources. Second, only English-language published publications were this decision was included; although methodologically justified (see Section 2.3), it may nonetheless exclude non-English-speaking TVET contexts. relevant studies from Third, considerable heterogeneity was observed among the included studies intervention in terms of research design, approaches, sample characteristics, and outcome measures, which limited the possibility of conducting a meta-analysis and required the use of qualitative thematic synthesis.

  STEM–TVET integration for developing pre-service teachers’ professional competence: a systematic literature review · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Digital literacy in education

• Impacts of digital technologies on education and factors influencing schools' digital capacity and transformation: A literature review · Education and Information Technologies · 2022 · 607 citations
• Information technology and Gen Z: The role of teachers, the internet, and technology in the education of young people · Technology in Society · 2021 · 577 citations
• Digital competence and digital literacy in higher education research: Systematic review of concept use · Cogent Education · 2018 · 504 citations
• Digital competence in higher education research: A systematic literature review · Computers & Education · 2021 · 426 citations
• Transforming online teaching practice: critical analysis of the literature on the roles and competencies of online teachers · Distance Education · 2011 · 360 citations
• A review of research exploring teacher preparation for the digital age · Cambridge Journal of Education · 2019 · 318 citations
• Teachers’ digital competencies in higher education: a systematic literature review · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · 2022 · 310 citations
• A systematic review on digital literacy · Smart Learning Environments · 2022 · 289 citations
• Digital Learning and Digital Institution in Higher Education · Education Sciences · 2023 · 268 citations
• Higher Education Future in the Era of Digital Transformation · Education Sciences · 2022 · 245 citations

Most recent work

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