Based on the findings and conclusions of the study the following recommendations are made: Chatbots should be regarded

The gap

Evidence profile

Sourced from the future work and recommendations and limitations of the source papers, classified as general, drawn from work published between 2024 and 2026, spanning 5 journals. Those papers have been cited 58 times in total.

Supporting evidence — 5 representative gaps

• Are lonely youngsters turning to chatbots for companionship? The relationship between chatbot usage and social connectedness in Danish high-school students (2024) · International Journal of Human-Computer Studies · cited 58× · doi

  The present study was carried out to explore how many youngsters engage in social conversations with chatbots and their motivations for doing so. By pursuing these aims, the present study contributes pre- liminary insights into the adoption and socioemotional antecedents of social chatbot use among youngsters. In broad terms, our findings indicate that 2.44 % of high school students have had casual conversa- tions or sought emotional support from chatbots in the past month, and, importantly, that these students are more socially disconnected than their peers. Hence, this research highlights a potential dark side of novel chatbots that warrants further investigation: The possibility that some socially disconnected youngsters turn to chatbots to cope with unmet social and emotional needs. In that sense, we propose that social chat- bots are not necessarily utilized as social companions but rather as tools to handle internal and external stressors. This idea has broader implica- tions for our understanding of the phenomenological status of social chatbots and similar technologies as agents or tools. While this study does not reject the notion that social chatbots can function as social companions, it suggests that, for some youngsters, chatbots may pri- marily serve as tools to cope with socioemotional deficits. As particularly youngsters with higher levels of social disconnect- edness seem to use chatbots for socioemotional purposes, there is a need for policymakers and industrial stakeholders to begin reflecting on the ethically responsible design and implementation of chatbots. In partic- ular, this is important to help prevent social displacement caused by social chatbots. However, it is also necessary to seek answers to lingering epistemic questions to inform the development of such ethical guide- lines. As of now, there is scarce evidence to anticipate the implications of social chatbots. In broad terms, future research should further explore the antecedents, moderators, and importantly, implications of seeking 11 A.B. Herbener and M.F. Damholdt International Journal of Human - Computer Studies 196 (2025) 103409 social and emotional support in conversational technologies. In partic- ular, there is a need for longitudinal experimental studies exploring how people engage with social chatbots over time, how their relationships evolve, and what this means for their sense of social connectedness. Furthermore, there is a need for methodological contributions aimed at exploring how to reliably assess social interactions with chatbots and similar conversational agents. The present study also calls for cross- cultural studies involving different demographic groups as cultural mechanisms might influence social chatbot adoption. All of these are crucial next steps to achieve a better understanding of whether—or under which conditions—social conversations with chatbots are helpful or harmful. CRediT authorship contribution statement Arthur Bran Herbener: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Malene Flensborg Damholdt: Writing – review & editing, Supervision, Conceptualization.

  generalfuture work
  Keywords: social chatbots youngsters there present socioemotional emotional tools need explore engage conversations adoption antecedents chatbot
• Exploring the Impact of Chatbot‑Mediated Preparation Tasks on Virtual Exchanges (2026) · Journal of Information Technology Education Innovations in Practice · doi

  Keywords As digital and intercultural communication become central to education, scala- ble tools that reduce anxiety and support participation can expand access to global learning opportunities. Longitudinal and comparative studies are needed to assess the durability of af- fective and communicative gains and to explore how different chatbot designs influence learning outcomes over time. virtual exchange, foreign language anxiety, chatbot-mediated learning, AI-sup- ported language learning, willingness to communicate, intercultural communica- tion INTRODUCTION Virtual Exchange (VE) has become an increasingly prominent feature of higher education as institu- tions seek to promote internationalization and digital collaboration (Sabzalieva et al., 2022). In this study, virtual exchange (VE) is defined as a structured, synchronous intercultural interaction con- ducted via Zoom between partner classes, in which students engage in small-group discussions across multiple sessions. These exchanges are designed to foster linguistic, intercultural, and communicative competencies through real-time interaction with international peers. Alongside VE, this study focuses on the use of AI-driven educational chatbots, defined here as mo- bile-based conversational systems that generate prompts, simulate dialogue, and provide opportuni- ties for repeated language practice. More specifically, Chatbot-mediated preparation tasks are defined as guided, speech-based rehearsal activities completed individually using the Eduling mobile applica- tion prior to live exchange sessions, where learners respond to prompts, practice extended speech, 2 Stroud, Phung, Rozells, Marasigan, Muharemagić, & Salieva and receive automated feedback. These tasks function as pre-task scaffolding designed to support both linguistic preparation and emotional readiness before real-time interaction. Despite the pedagogical value of VEs, they frequently generate anxiety, particularly during live inter- actions with unfamiliar interlocutors. Learners often experience apprehension related to pronuncia- tion, performance, and intercultural communication (Martinsen & Thompson, 2024; Schug & Simon, 2023). Such anxiety can reduce participation, as students who feel nervous or self-conscious may limit their contributions or disengage entirely (Rahmani et al., 2023). These challenges are especially pronounced in synchronous online environments, where communication occurs in real time and is often perceived as evaluative. These experiences align with the construct of Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA), defined by M. B. Horwitz et al. (1991, p. 31) as “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, beliefs, feelings, and behaviors related to classroom language learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process.” FLA reflects the tension between learners’ desire to communicate effectively and their fear of nega- tive evaluation. It is both anticipatory and physio

  generalfuture work
  Keywords: learning language intercultural anxiety time exchange defined communication chatbot virtual tion interaction real learners digital
• Comparative Evaluation of Intelligent Chatbots and Intelligent Tutoring Systems in Enhancing Management Education Learning Outcomes in Universities of Southeast Nigeria (2026) · Journal of Contemporary Education Research · doi

  Based on the findings and conclusions of the study the following recommendations are made: Chatbots should be regarded by policymakers and academic administrators as scalable, cost-effective tools for improving student engagement and success. ITS tool developers need to shift their tools from content delivery systems to dynamic learning environments that promote reflection, self-assessment, and critical thinking. ii.

  generalrecommendations
  Keywords: tools based conclusions following recommendations made chatbots regarded policymakers academic administrators scalable cost effective improving
• Perceived support from AI chatbots and loneliness among higher vocational college students: a short-term three-wave study of social interaction anxiety and perceived social support (2026) · Frontiers in Psychology · doi

  This study is both consistent with and meaningfully different from existing digital communication research. Existing social compensation perspectives suggest that online interaction may help individuals with insufficient social resources obtain additional support, whereas social enhancement perspectives emphasize that individuals with greater existing social resources are more likely to benefit from online resources (Kraut et al., 2002; McKenna et al., 2002). This study extends this logic to the context of generative AI and finds that perceived support from AI chatbots is not fully equivalent to traditional online interpersonal support. Traditional online social support usually comes from real people, whereas OSSS in this study essentially refers to supportive experiences perceived by students while using AI chat the theoretical contribution of this study is to extend traditional digital communication theory to the context of generative AI support and to suggest that whether the support source is a real interpersonal agent may change the psychological meaning of social support. tools. Thus, the the also

  generalfuture work
  Keywords: support social online existing resources traditional digital communication perspectives suggest individuals context generative perceived interpersonal
• Understanding student perspectives on generative AI chatbots: a human-centred mixed-methods study in higher education (2026) · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · doi

  While the study provides valuable insights, some limitations must be acknowledged: The sample size (n = 121) limits generalisability to the broader student population. While the system analytics data is accurate, the survey data is self-reported and may be influenced by recall bias or social desirability. The study does not include longitudinal data, so changes in perception over time could not be tracked. The chatbot technolo- gies were relatively new affecting usage rates and experience. Training was not provided for students on how to use the chatbot, apart from a limited set of starter prompts. This study did not report on the types and themes associated with student prompts. This will be the subject of a follow-up paper. Despite these limitations, the research design was Colbran et al. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education (2026) 23:28 Page 18 of 21 fit-for-purpose and allowed for a detailed exploration of students’ real-time experiences with educational chatbots. Future research could build on the present study by examining chatbot use across a broader range of institutions and disciplinary contexts to improve the generalisability of the findings. Longitudinal studies could also explore how student perceptions and patterns of chatbot engagement evolve as AI technologies become more familiar within higher education environments. Further research could analyse the types of prompts students use when interacting with chatbots and investigate how these interactions influence learning outcomes, critical thinking, and academic integrity practices. Such studies would contribute to a deeper understanding of how GenAI tools can be effec- tively and responsibly integrated into higher education teaching and learning.

  generallimitationsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: chatbot student students prompts higher education limitations generalisability broader longitudinal time types educational chatbots learning

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