The high capital expenditure and infrastructure lock-in required for QKD deployment

The gap

Evidence profile

Sourced from the inline gaps and future work and stated research gap and limitations section and future-work section and synthesized of the source papers, classified as general, spanning 6 journals.

Supporting evidence — 8 representative gaps

• Comparative Analysis of Quantum and Classical Computing: Performance, Error Rates, and Hybrid Architectures (2026) · EAI Endorsed Transactions on Internet of Things · doi

  As quantum cloud services grow and hardware platforms get better, future research should focus on direct comparisons between different types of devices to confirm modeling results and finetune noise models. Das, "Quantum secure authentication and key agreement protocols for IoT-enabled applications: A comprehensive survey and open challenges," Computer Science Review, doi: vol. Diop, "IoT Security in the Quantum Era: State of the Art and Open Challenges," 2025 5th International Conference on Innovative Research in Applied Science, Engineering and Technology (IRASET), pp.

  generalinline gaps
  Keywords: quantum open challenges science cloud services grow hardware platforms better future focus direct comparisons different
• Development of A BB84-Based Quantum Security System (2026) · International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering Management & Applied Science · doi

  While the proposed system shows promising results, several directions can be explored to further enhance its capabilities: • Real-World Quantum Hardware Integration: Future implementations can focus on deploying the system using actual quantum communication hardware, such as photon sources and detectors, instead of relying solely on simu-lation environments. Page 785 www.rsisinternational.org INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF LATEST TECHNOLOGY IN ENGINEERING, MANAGEMENT & APPLIED SCIENCE (IJLTEMAS) ISSN 2278-2540 | DOI: 10.51583/IJLTEMAS | Volume XV, Issue VI, June 2026 • Advanced QKD Protocols: Exploring alternative QKD protocols, such as E91 or Measurement-Device- Independent QKD (MDI-QKD), could improve security and reduce vulnerabilities related to device imperfections [17]. • • • Improving Key Generation Efficiency: Further opti-mization of error correction and privacy amplification techniques may help reduce noise effects and increase key generation rates. Scalability and Multi-User Support: Extending the system to support multiple users and larger quantum networks would enhance its applicability in real-world communication infrastructures. Integration of Additional PQC Algorithms: Incorpo-rating other post-quantum algorithms, such as NTRU or Dilithium, can provide greater flexibility and strengthen the hybrid security model. • Real-Time Application Development: The framework can be extended into practical applications such as secure messaging or file-sharing platforms with web or mobile interfaces. • Performance Optimization: Future work can focus on reducing computational overhead and improving latency to enable smoother real-time communication. • Advanced Security Analysis: Further investigation into side-channel attacks, quantum hacking strategies, and more sophisticated adversarial models would help en-hance the system’s overall resilience. In summary, the proposed hybrid quantum-safe communica-tion system provides a strong foundation for ongoing research in secure communication technologies and supports the de-velopment of practical, scalable solutions for the emerging quantum era. REFERENCES 1. X. Wu, B. Zhang, G. Chen, and D. Jin, “A Scalable Quantum Key Distribution Network Testbed Using Parallel Discrete-Event Simulation,” ACM Transactions on Modeling and Computer Simulation, vol. 32, no. 2, article 11, pp. 1–25, Feb. 2022. doi: 10.1145/3490029. 2. I. Gkouliaras, A. Kordas, K. Vlachos, and C. Kollmitz, “NuQKD: A Modular Quantum Key Distribution Simulation Framework,” Ad-vanced Physics Research, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 1–15, Jan. 2024. doi: 10.1002/apxr.202400016. 3. S. Mangini, M. Grossi, M. W. Johnson, and R. Oru´s, “Tensor network noise characterization for near- term quantum computers

  generalfuture work
  Keywords: quantum system real communication further security simulation proposed enhance world hardware integration future focus using
• Development of A BB84-Based Quantum Security System (2026) · International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering Management & Applied Science · doi

  CONCLUSION This work presented the design and implementation of a quantum-safe communication system that integrates Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), based on the BB84 protocol, with Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and modern symmetric encryption techniques. The proposed hybrid approach ad-dresses the growing security concerns associated with tra-ditional cryptographic methods in the context of advancing quantum computing technologies [12], [17]. The BB84 protocol demonstrated consistent performance in generating secure keys, with a low Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER), allowing reliable detection of potential eaves-dropping attempts. These results are consistent with prior studies highlighting the effectiveness of BB84 in secure key exchange [16]. In addition, the integration of PQC, partic-ularly the Kyber Key Encapsulation Mechanism, provides a quantum-resistant alternative for classical key exchange, further strengthening the system’s overall security [12]. By combining QKD and PQC through a hybrid key derivation process, the framework achieves a layered security model that remains robust even if one component is compromised [1], [2]. For data protection, the use of One-Time Pad (OTP) encryp-tion ensures strong confidentiality, while HMAC- SHA3-256 provides message integrity and authentication. Furthermore, XChaCha20-Poly1305 enables efficient and secure file en-cryption, making the system suitable for practical applications involving large data transfers. These combined mechanisms contribute to a balanced design that supports both security and performance. Experimental evaluation confirms the reliability and effec-tiveness of the proposed system. The framework achieved high success rates in key generation, encryption, and decryption, with minimal delays and no observed authentication fail-ures. Compared to conventional cryptographic approaches, the proposed model offers improved resilience against quantum-based threats while maintaining practical feasibility through simulation-based implementation. Overall, this research demonstrates that integrating quantum and post-quantum techniques can form a strong foundation for next-generation secure communication systems. The pro-posed framework helps bridge the gap between theoretical advancements in quantum cryptography and real-world imple-mentation, contributing toward the development of scalable and future-ready communication infrastructures [18]. FUTURE WORK While the proposed system shows promising results, several directions can be explored to further enhance its capabilities: • Real-World Quantum Hardware Integration: Future implementations can focus on deploying the system using actual quantum communication hardware, such as photon sources and detectors, instead of relying solely on simu-lation environments. Page 785 www.rsisinternational.org

  generalfuture work
  Keywords: quantum system communication proposed security secure based framework future design implementation protocol post cryptography encryption
• Beyond encryption: post-quantum cryptography and the future of quantum-safe networks (2026) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi

  The lack of a phased, cryptographically agile framework to achieve a Zero-Trust, Quantum-Safe network architecture. The need for evaluation of the performance metrics of integrating post-quantum cryptography with quantum key distribution. The limitations and challenges associated with PQC-QKD integration.

  generalstated research gapevidence 5/5
  Keywords: lack phased cryptographically agile framework achieve zero-trust quantum-safe
• Beyond encryption: post-quantum cryptography and the future of quantum-safe networks (2026) · Frontiers in Computer Science · doi

  The high capital expenditure and infrastructure lock-in required for QKD deployment. The lack of standardized hardware interfaces risks severe vendor lock-in. The quantum repeater bottleneck and signal degradation limit QKD to distances of 100-150 kilometers.

  generallimitations sectionevidence 5/5
  Keywords: high capital expenditure infrastructure lock-in required qkd deployment
• Spatial mode encoding for quantum key distribution: From hundreds to thousands of modes (2026) · Physical Review Applied · doi

  The use of next-generation detectors to increase photon efficiencies and achieve higher bit rates. The integration of spatial-mode QKD into fiber-based quantum networks using multimode fibers. The exploration of additional degrees of freedom such as polarization and time-bins to further increase photon efficiencies.

  generalfuture-work sectionevidence 5/5
  Keywords: use next-generation detectors increase photon efficiencies achieve higher
• Security risks of VOA-induced luminescence in chip-based quantum key distribution (2026) · npj Quantum Information · doi

  Investigating the security threats posed by parasitic emission in different transmitter architectures, - Developing security-aware device design for future integrated quantum communication technologies, - Exploring methods to mitigate the dual-source flaw in decoy-state protocols

  generalfuture-work sectionevidence 5/5
  Keywords: investigating security threats posed parasitic emission different transmitter
• Quantum Cryptography, Quantum Communications and Nano-Enabled Cybersecurity: Global Frameworks for DefenceTech, FinTech and SpaceTech (2026) · International Journal of Academic and Industrial Research Innovations(IJAIRI) · doi

  Hybrid post-quantum cryptography (combining PQC with quantum key distribution) is proposed as a risk-reduction strategy, but none of these studies evaluate the feasibility, cost, or security trade-offs of hybrid PQC-QKD deployment in Pakistan's geographic and infrastructural context, where long-distance optical paths, satellite links, or quantum repeater networks may be impractical or economically unfeasible.

  generalsynthesizedevidence 5/5
  Keywords: hybrid post-quantum cryptography combining pqc quantum key distribution

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