The limitations of traditional authentication techniques

The gap

Evidence profile

Stated in the future work and inline gaps and abstract and cells future research and cells research gap sections of the source papers, classified as general, drawn from work published between 2024 and 2026, spanning 7 journals. Those papers have been cited 158 times in total.

Supporting evidence — 8 representative gaps

• A Hybrid Quantum–Classical Signature Scheme Based on Lattice Cryptography with Entanglement and Decoy-Qubit Authentication for Eavesdropping Detection (2026) · International Journal of Drug Delivery Technology · doi

  The paper introduced the concept of a hybrid quantum-classical authentication scheme that combines lattice-based post-quantum digital signatures with quantum authentication and de- coy qubit verification that are assisted by entanglement. The need to develop such an au- thentication scheme stemmed from the need to ensure long-term cryptographic trust in the presence of quantum computational attacks, while at the same time ensuring the capability to identify interception during the transmission of information. The use of the lattice-based digital signatures ensured the capability of the scheme to exhibit excellent existential unforgeability under standard lattice assumptions, while at the same time ensuring the scheme’s compatibility with traditional public-key infrastructures. The use of the quantum authentication scheme ensured the security of the communication by leveraging the disturbance of quantum measurement, thereby ensuring the capability to identify interception with high probability. The security evaluation of the scheme indicated that the probability of failing to identify interception decreases exponentially with the number of decoy qubits used, while the performance evaluation of the scheme indicated that the additional quantum communication overhead is controllable. IJDDT, Volume 16 Issue 38s, 2026 Page 33 A Hybrid Quantum–Classical Signature Scheme Based on Lattice Cryptography with Entanglement and Decoy-Qubit Authentication for Eavesdropping Detection The future research directions include the extension of the proposed scheme to more re- alistic quantum channels by considering the effects of depolarizing noise, photon loss, and measurement imperfections. Another important research direction is the optimization of the strategies of entanglement distribution and the minimization of the quantum communication overhead while ensuring the capability to identify interception with high probability. The extension of the proposed scheme to other emerging applications such as quantum internet routing, blockchain validation, and IoT communication is another important research direc- tion that has the potential to be realized in the future. The implementation of the proposed scheme on experimental quantum communication testbeds and the evaluation of the scheme’s performance relative to other quantum digital signature schemes are other important research directions that need to be considered in the future. P. W.

  generalstated in future workevidence 5/5
  Keywords: quantum scheme communication authentication lattice ensuring capability identify interception based digital entanglement need probability evaluation
• Comparative Analysis of Quantum and Classical Computing: Performance, Error Rates, and Hybrid Architectures (2026) · EAI Endorsed Transactions on Internet of Things · doi

  As quantum cloud services grow and hardware platforms get better, future research should focus on direct comparisons between different types of devices to confirm modeling results and finetune noise models. Das, "Quantum secure authentication and key agreement protocols for IoT-enabled applications: A comprehensive survey and open challenges," Computer Science Review, doi: vol. Diop, "IoT Security in the Quantum Era: State of the Art and Open Challenges," 2025 5th International Conference on Innovative Research in Applied Science, Engineering and Technology (IRASET), pp.

  generalstated in inline gapsevidence 5/5
  Keywords: quantum open challenges science cloud services grow hardware platforms better future focus direct comparisons different
• The Evolution of Quantum Secure Direct Communication: On the Road to the Qinternet (2024) · IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials · cited 158× · doi

  Finally, we discuss the open challenges as well as the future trends of QSDC networks, emphasizing again that QSDC is not a pure quantum key distribution (QKD) protocol, but a fully-fledged secure communication scheme.

  generalstated in abstractevidence 5/5
  Keywords: qsdc finally discuss open challenges well future trends networks emphasizing again pure quantum distribution protocol
• Development of A BB84-Based Quantum Security System (2026) · International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering Management & Applied Science · doi

  CONCLUSION This work presented the design and implementation of a quantum-safe communication system that integrates Quantum Key Distribution (QKD), based on the BB84 protocol, with Post-Quantum Cryptography (PQC) and modern symmetric encryption techniques. The proposed hybrid approach ad-dresses the growing security concerns associated with tra-ditional cryptographic methods in the context of advancing quantum computing technologies,. The BB84 protocol demonstrated consistent performance in generating secure keys, with a low Quantum Bit Error Rate (QBER), allowing reliable detection of potential eaves-dropping attempts. These results are consistent with prior studies highlighting the effectiveness of BB84 in secure key exchange. In addition, the integration of PQC, partic-ularly the Kyber Key Encapsulation Mechanism, provides a quantum-resistant alternative for classical key exchange, further strengthening the system’s overall security. By combining QKD and PQC through a hybrid key derivation process, the framework achieves a layered security model that remains robust even if one component is compromised,. For data protection, the use of One-Time Pad (OTP) encryp-tion ensures strong confidentiality, while HMAC- SHA3-256 provides message integrity and authentication. Furthermore, XChaCha20-Poly1305 enables efficient and secure file en-cryption, making the system suitable for practical applications involving large data transfers. These combined mechanisms contribute to a balanced design that supports both security and performance. Experimental evaluation confirms the reliability and effec-tiveness of the proposed system. The framework achieved high success rates in key generation, encryption, and decryption, with minimal delays and no observed authentication fail-ures. Compared to conventional cryptographic approaches, the proposed model offers improved resilience against quantum-based threats while maintaining practical feasibility through simulation-based implementation. Overall, this research demonstrates that integrating quantum and post-quantum techniques can form a strong foundation for next-generation secure communication systems. The pro-posed framework helps bridge the gap between theoretical advancements in quantum cryptography and real-world imple-mentation, contributing toward the development of scalable and future-ready communication infrastructures. FUTURE WORK While the proposed system shows promising results, several directions can be explored to further enhance its capabilities: • Real-World Quantum Hardware Integration: Future implementations can focus on deploying the system using actual quantum communication hardware, such as photon sources and detectors, instead of relying solely on simu-lation environments.

  generalstated in future workevidence 5/5
  Keywords: quantum system communication proposed security secure based framework future design implementation protocol post cryptography encryption
• Offline dedicated quantum attacks on block cipher constructions based on two parallel permutation-based pseudorandom functions (2026) · Science China Information Sciences · doi

  To investigate more generic and effective offline dedicated quantum attacks applicable to other cryptographic structures. - To evaluate the security of block cipher constructions against dedicated quantum attacks. - To propose new constructions that are resistant to dedicated quantum attacks.

  generalstated in cells future researchevidence 5/5
  Keywords: investigate generic effective offline dedicated quantum attacks applicable
• Development of A BB84-Based Quantum Security System (2026) · International Journal of Latest Technology in Engineering Management & Applied Science · doi

  The rapid advancement of quantum computing poses a serious threat to traditional cryptographic systems. - There is a need for cryptographic solutions that can withstand quantum attacks. - The proposed system addresses this gap by integrating BB84 Quantum Key Distribution with Post-Quantum Cryptography.

  generalstated in cells research gapevidence 5/5
  Keywords: rapid advancement quantum computing poses serious threat traditional
• Fundamental Quantum Theories and Physical Bounds in Adversarial Cryptanalysis: A Unified Framework (2026) · International Journal on Applied Physics and Engineering · doi

  Prior work has lacked a unified theoretical foundation connecting attack mechanisms to fundamental physical principles. - The lack of a comprehensive theoretical framework for characterizing and detecting physical-layer attacks on quantum cryptographic systems.

  generalstated in cells research gapevidence 5/5
  Keywords: prior work has lacked unified theoretical foundation connecting
• Quantifying quantum risk: a measure of crypto agility (2026) · arXiv

  Recent advances in cryptography and security architecture show promise in supporting the design of systems that exhibit resilience against quantum-enabled cryptanalysis, however there is a key gap in the literature around the subject of deriving tolerances for such systems.

  generalstated in abstractevidence 4/5
  Keywords: systems recent advances cryptography security architecture show promise supporting design exhibit resilience against quantum enabled

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