Open research questions in Cognitive Abilities and Testing

What the literature leaves open

• Although cross-modal plasticity has been proposed as a compensatory mechanism, the extent to which VI severity affects verbal learning and executive functioning during development remains unclear.

  Impact of visual impairment severity on working memory and executive function in children and adolescents · 2026 · DOI

• A key strength of this study is the use of a within-family trio design to examine genetic transmission and IGEs of education-related traits on internalising and externalising behaviours across childhood and early adolescence, in a large, nationally representative longitudinal cohort14,16,17,67. The use of full-information maximum likelihood estimators helped address missing data68, and sampling weights enhanced generalisability relative to other UK genomic cohorts45. By decomposing educational attainment into its cognitive and non-cognitive polygenic components, we provide a more fine-grained insight into distinct intergenerational associations across development25. 22 Our study does have several limitations. First, some null findings may reflect insufficient statistical power, as our trio design requires large samples to detect small effects69, and our estimates may not fully capture time- or parent-specific effects. This is particularly the case for developmental trends, as we observed several significant age-specific effects corroborated by nominally significant developmental trends that fail short of significance after correction for multiple testing. Second, the sample was predominantly of European ancestry and limited to genotyped trios, constraining generalisability to more diverse populations and family structures70,71. Third, mental health outcomes were based solely on primary carer reports, which may introduce rater bias72. As such, observed developmental differences should be interpreted cautiously as they may partly reflect age-dependent variation in parental reporting rather than changes in underlying symptomatology. Additionally, SDQ sum scores are non-normally distributed, particularly for internalising behaviours in early childhood, which could bias associations despite our use of a robust estimator73,74. Finally, although the trio approach mitigates passive gene-environment correlation13, we cannot fully rule out other confounding processes, such as residual population stratification or cross-trait assortative mating75. Future work in larger and more diverse longitudinal cohorts, ideally incorporating multi-rater assessments and alternative genetically informed designs12,76, is needed to replicate and extend these findings.

  Intergenerational influences of the cognitive and non-cognitive genetic components of educational attainment on externalising and internalising behaviour in childhood and adolescence. · 2026 · DOI

• Our findings on the developmental and trait-specific genetic associations with mental health difficulties call for replication in larger samples followed from childhood into young adulthood. Analysing distinct subcomponents of broader constructs, such as educational attainment, can provide more fine-grained insights into intergenerational associations with mental health risk. The processes underlying each component may operate in opposing directions, which, if analysed jointly, could attenuate or even eliminate their effects. A similar issue may arise when combining information across developmental stages. Merging components (e.g. Cog and NonCog) or time points may obscure indirect genetic associations and bias direct transmission estimates. Future studies should also examine intergenerational associations between education-related traits and specific dimensions of emotional and behavioural difficulties, including hyperactivity/inattention, emotional, conduct, and peer problems. This may be particularly relevant for ADHD-related dimensions, given their high heritability65 and genetic overlap with educational attainment66.

  Intergenerational influences of the cognitive and non-cognitive genetic components of educational attainment on externalising and internalising behaviour in childhood and adolescence. · 2026 · DOI

• Several limitations must be considered when interpreting these findings. First, it is important to address the sample size and the search strategy employed. Although only nine studies met the eligibility criteria, this relatively small number reflects a fundamental challenge in the current literature on SGss: the widespread lack of rigorous methodological designs. To ensure maximum sensitivity, our search string included three synonyms of SGs,to capture interventions that might not use the serious label despite meeting our PICOS criteria. The limited final sample is therefore a direct consequence of our strict adherence to inclusion and exclusion criteria, specifically the requirement for an untrained control group and objective pre- and postintervention assessments. These criteria were prioritized to ensure that any observed cognitive improvements could be reliably attributed to the digital intervention, favoring scientific rigor over the quantity of included papers. This selection highlights the urgent need for more standardized clinical protocols in the field. The high heterogeneity across studies represents a primary challenge for the generalizability of our conclusions. However, this heterogeneity reflects the intrinsic nature of SGss as flexible clinical tools. As highlighted by Chaldogeridis and Tsiatsos (93), future research must overcome the lack of detailed reporting regarding game structure and specific functioning to allow for better replication. Furthermore, factors such as small sample sizes, the absence of active control groups, and the lack of longterm follow-up should be considered when designing future game-based in intervention modalities and dosages (ranging from 4 to 50 h of total training) further complicates the synthesis of results. Following the framework by Green et al. (78), our findings must be interpreted through the lens of effectiveness rather than pure efficacy, acknowledging that real-world compliance, where users may not maintain the exact frequency or precision of the original protocol, significantly impacts clinical outcomes. to prevent bias. The variability systems A critical methodological limitation is the almost total absence of follow-up data. This prevents us from drawing conclusions about the long-term effectiveness of SGss. Future research should prioritize longitudinal designs to assess whether the cognitive benefits observed training are maintained over time. immediately after Moreover, the methodological discrepancy between the cognitive domains targeted by the SGs and those actually assessed through pre- and post- test measures.

  The effectiveness of serious games for training of attention and executive functions: a systematic review · 2026 · DOI

• future research adopt more To transition from laboratory efficacy to real-world clinical utility, rigorous should methodological standards. It is fundamental that motivation should be measured directly rather than being inferred from adherence rates, integrating validated psychometric tools. These instruments should be administered at multiple points during the rehabilitative process to monitor the sustainability of the gamification effect and prevent a decline in interest over the long term. In parallel, future manuscripts must include detailed technical descriptions of the active ingredients of the game. Authors should explicitly report the types of feedback used, the adaptivity algorithms for difficulty regulation, and game design elements, such as narrative or social interaction components, as these factors directly moderate cognitive load and treatment efficacy. Furthermore, it would be necessary to develop more comprehensive SGs, capable of simultaneously rehabilitating a greater number of attentional skills and EFs. Moreover, to assess whether SGs produce permanent neuroplastic changes rather than simple temporary performance boosts, it is imperative to include follow-up assessments at three or six months after the intervention ends. Ultimately, the clinical utility of SGs is not merely a product of the game format but stems from a complex interaction between the target population’s cognitive architecture, the precision of the rehabilitative design, and the sustained engagement of the user. Provided that the focus remains on therapeutic objectives rather than purely ludic interaction, SGs represent a powerful, for inclusive, modern neurorehabilitation.

  The effectiveness of serious games for training of attention and executive functions: a systematic review · 2026 · DOI

• all, and, above in documenting The present review suggests that, while SGs for attention and EFs training have a solid foundation in defining and pursuing serious objectives, there are significant challenges in their full implementation their characteristics. SGs are generally well-structured to achieve specific EFs learning or rehabilitation goals, with a focus on objective clarity and task feasibility. Critical challenges arise in rigorous content validation, bias mitigation, and, crucially, longterm retention of EFs learning, which remains an ongoing challenge in SGs research (59, 60). The high frequency of not available several methodological about characteristics of SGs reported in the present review highlights a systemic gap lack of detailed the scientific information about SGs characteristics community’s ability to fully understand how serious and gaming features are implemented, how they influence each other, and what their actual impact on EFs is. To advance the field, it is imperative that future research adopt more rigorous reporting standards, providing explicit details on all aspects of SGs design and implementation. in SGs description. This information limits Our analysis adopts a more critical approach toward actual generalizability compared to recent literature, such as the review by Rodríguez-Timaná et al. (73). While they highlight the general potential of SGs as therapeutic tools for neurodiverse populations, our review evaluates clinical efficacy across multiple cognitive domains, while also considering far transfer and treatment adherence as key indicators of success. Additionally, our methodological approach addresses some gaps found in existing reviews. For instance, Rodríguez-Timaná et al. (73) limited their search to Open Access articles, Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 21 frontiersin.org Tommasi et al. 10.3389/frcha.2026.1801077 potentially restricting the completeness of the clinical picture, and included studies without control groups. By contrast, our selection strictly requires a control group and explores a wider range of publications, ensuring a more rigorous assessment of whether the observed SGs intervention. improvements attributable truly are to 4.8 Recommendations for practice and future research future research adopt more To transition from laboratory efficacy to real-world clinical utility, rigorous should methodological standards. It is fundamental that motivation should be measured directly rather than being inferred from adherence rates, integrating validated psychometric tools. These instruments should be administered at multiple points during the rehabilitative process to monitor the sustainability of the gamification effect and prevent a decline in interest over the long term. In parallel, future manuscripts must include detailed technical descriptions of the active ingredients of the game. Authors should explicitly report the types of feedback used, the adaptivity algorithms for difficulty regulation, and game design elements, such as narrative or social interaction components, as these factors directly moderate cognitive load and treatment efficacy. Furthermore, it would be necessary to develop more comprehensive SGs, capable of simultaneously rehabilitating a greater number of attentional skills and EFs. Moreover, to assess whether SGs produce permanent neuroplastic changes rather than simple temporary performance boosts, it is imperative to include follow-up assessments at three or six months after the intervention ends. Ultimately, the clinical utility of SGs is not merely a product of the game format but stems from a complex interaction between the target population’s cognitive architecture, the precision of the rehabilitative design, and the sustained engagement of the user. Provided that the focus remains on therapeutic objectives rather than purely ludic interaction, SGs represent a powerful, for inclusive, modern neurorehabilitation.

  The effectiveness of serious games for training of attention and executive functions: a systematic review · 2026 · DOI

• Despite the significant findings, certain limitations must be acknowledged. First, the sample size (N=25) and specific demographic focus (school students in Pakistan) may limit the generalizability of the results to broader populations or older age groups. Second, while the 6-week crossover design provides internal validity, the long-term retention of these cognitive gains beyond the intervention period remains to be explored.

  The Effects of Multi-Modal Intervention Protocols on Verbal Intelligence Domains in Pakistani School Students: A Randomized Crossover Trial · 2026 · DOI

• 1997).While viewed traditional intelligence as a static trait, contemporary research increasingly explores the "nurture" aspect, investigating how physiological and environmental interventions can optimize cognitive architecture (Lei et al., 2025; Singh et al., 2025; Spitz, 2013). Verbal Intelligence (VI), comprising the Verbal Comprehension Index (VCI) and Working Memory Index (WMI) (D Wechsler, 1955), is particularly critical as it serves as a primary predictor of academic success and abstract reasoning(Ferrara et al., 1986).

  The Effects of Multi-Modal Intervention Protocols on Verbal Intelligence Domains in Pakistani School Students: A Randomized Crossover Trial · 2026 · DOI

• The cognitive ability PGS was constructed using LDpred2-auto applied to meta-analyzed GWAS (offline/online data plus Savage et al. 2018). Alternative polygenic score construction methods (e.g., LDpred-grid, lassosum, C+T thresholding) and their relative portability across ancestry groups have not been directly compared within this dataset.

  Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · 2026 · DOI

• The occupational stratification analysis excluded occupations with fewer validation individuals to reduce instability but did not specify the exact threshold applied or conduct sensitivity analyses around this cutoff. Robustness testing across multiple occupational classification schemes (CAMSIS vs. SOC vs. raw job titles) and examination of PGS-occupational stratification relationships in non-UK populations is needed.

  Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · 2026 · DOI

• Disease prediction analyses tested 19 non-overlapping conditions across multiple biological systems using imputed parental polygenic scores within sibling sets. However, systematic investigation of whether cognitive ability PGS effects on disease outcomes vary by specific diagnostic categories (e.g., neurodevelopmental vs. cardiovascular vs. metabolic diseases) or by age-of-onset patterns remains absent.

  Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · 2026 · DOI

• The pleiotropy screen examined 20 psychological and neurodevelopmental outcomes in ABCD using between-family analyses, which the authors acknowledge likely inflate effect sizes due to assortative mating and genetic nurture. Within-family pleiotropy validation using sibling fixed-effects methodology (analogous to the disease prediction approach) across the same 20 outcomes would clarify whether observed associations reflect direct genetic pleiotropy or confounding.

  Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · 2026 · DOI

• Gene-environment interaction analyses were conducted only exploratorily in European-ancestry ABCD participants at baseline with three moderators (parental education, family income, family conflict). Systematic G×E testing across non-European ancestry groups, longitudinal timepoints, and additional environmental contexts (school quality, neighborhood disadvantage, nutritional factors) remains unexamined for the cognitive ability PGS.

  Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · 2026 · DOI

• The cognitive ability polygenic score's portability to non-European ancestry groups relies on linear interpolation and genetic distance extrapolation from limited reference populations. Direct GWAS validation and PGS construction specifically within African, Hispanic/Latino, East Asian, and South Asian cohorts with comparable sample sizes to European ancestry studies is needed to move beyond predicted effect retention estimates.

  Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · 2026 · DOI

• In the present analyses, we applied a forced single factor extraction to estimate the positive manifold, modeling shared variance across the available cognitive tasks. However, the interpretation of this extracted general factor critically depends on the breadth and content of the cognitive indicators included (Johnson et al., 2004, 2008). Psychometric g, as traditionally conceptualized, is derived from a broad range of higher order cognitive abilities, whereas the present g factor likely reflects an executive function-specific construct given the domain composition of the SHARE battery (Johnson et al., 2008). Consequently, our results reflect longitudinal trends in executive functions rather than general intelligence per se. Second, measurement invariance analyses could only be performed for one of the five cognitive tasks (numeracy II, see Table 7), due to subscale measurement properties. This raises concerns about the meaningfulness of the observed test score changes in the remaining four domains and in particular when it comes to verbal fluency. However, the non-verbal subscales of our cognitive functioning assessments should be largely unaffected from measurement non-invariance-related problems. Third, some of the decadal IQ (DIQ) estimates derived in this study appear implausibly large and warrant careful interpretation. Because DIQs are standardized based on the length of time intervals between samples, even modest performance differences may yield disproportionately large DIQ values when intervals are brief. Thus, high DIQ estimates may exaggerate the magnitude of true cognitive changes, reflecting short-term interval sensitivity rather than substantial cognitive gains or losses. However, changes were for the most part remarkably consistent in terms of sign across countries, thus indicating meaningful evidence for predominantly positive cognitive functioning Flynn effects in our data. Finally, due to our analytical approach, our results rely on refreshment samples added across SHARE waves. However, refreshment sampling was not consistently implemented across all countries or waves, introducing temporal gaps in the available data. For example, Greece, Italy, and Luxembourg provided no new samples after 2015, restricting temporal continuity, while Finland and Latvia joined SHARE only in 2017, thereby limiting the observation period for these countries. Moreover, in the interpretation of cohort differences in older-adult samples methodological challenges specific to aging research have to be accounted for.

  Executive Function Flynn Effect Are Independent of Psychometric <i>⁠g</i> in Aging Populations Across Europe (2005-2022) · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should focus on the efficacy of using smart EMA within populations with cognitive impairment to develop an appropriate methodological evidence base.

  Completion Rates of Smart Technology Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) in Populations With a Higher Likelihood of Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · 2025 · DOI

• Unlike ID, SLD is weakly related to full-scale IQ, and there is insufficient evidence that the routine assessment of IQ or cognitive skills adds value to SLD identification and treatment.

  Assessment of Specific Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Disabilities · 2023 · DOI

• Though recent research on the United States suggests that a Flynn effect could still be present, or partially present, among child and adolescent samples, few studies have explored differences of cognitive ability scores among US adults.

  Looking for Flynn effects in a recent online U.S. adult sample: Examining shifts within the SAPA Project · 2023 · DOI

• ABSTRACT There is increasing evidence that the authoritarian parenting style has a negative effect on children's executive control, but little is known about the neurobiological mechanism behind this effect, especially the evidence of the resting‐state EEG related to children's brain function.

  Authoritarian Parenting Effect on Children's Executive Control and Individual Alpha Peak Frequency · 2021 · DOI

• The two most commonly used nonverbal tests for gifted identification, the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT) and the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) nonverbal battery, have not been compared in their newer versions to explore the effects of their use on the identification of underserved populations.

  Differences in Using the Cognitive Abilities Test (CogAT) 7 Nonverbal Battery Versus the Naglieri Nonverbal Ability Test (NNAT) 2 to Identify the Gifted/Talented · 2020 · DOI

• Though studies have shown that CCT can improve WM in typical and atypical populations, little is known regarding the efficacy of implementing CCT within a school setting.

  The effectiveness of computerized cognitive training on working memory in a school setting · 2020 · DOI

• Themes that run through the papers and that are discussed further here are that: (1) the importance of general and specific ability predictors will largely depend on the outcome to be predicted, (2) the effectiveness of both general and specific predictors will largely depend on the quality and breadth of how the manifest indicators are measured, and (3) research on general and specific ability predictors is alive and well and more research is warranted.

  Commenting on the “Great Debate”: General Abilities, Specific Abilities, and the Tools of the Trade · 2019 · DOI

• Existing studies, however, lack conceptual and methodological differentiation regarding FMS and little is known about the directional nature of links.

  Relations between Preschool Children’s Fine Motor Skills and General Cognitive Abilities · 2019 · DOI

• Abstract Although broad associations between socioeconomic status (SES) and child executive functions (EFs) are well established, contextual factors that may matter for effects of SES on EF are not fully understood.

  Neighbourhood chaos moderates the association of socioeconomic status and child executive functioning · 2019 · DOI

• There are known relationships between psychopathology, personality, and executive function (EF), though the association between personality and EF, independent of psychopathology, remains understudied.

  Associations Between Neuroticism and Executive Function Outcomes: Response Inhibition and Sustained Attention on a Continuous Performance Test · 2019 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Cognitive Abilities and Testing

• The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. · Psychological Bulletin · 1996 · 3,922 citations
• Externalizing behavior problems and academic underachievement in childhood and adolescence: Causal relationships and underlying mechanisms. · Psychological Bulletin · 1992 · 1,079 citations
• A meta-analytic review of sex differences in facial expression processing and their development in infants, children, and adolescents. · Psychological Bulletin · 2000 · 760 citations
• Cognitive Deficits Associated with Blood Lead Concentrations <10 microg/dL in US Children and Adolescents · Public Health Reports · 2000 · 680 citations
• Working Memory and Intelligence: The Same or Different Constructs? · Psychological Bulletin · 2005 · 676 citations
• Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: I. Latent structure. · Developmental Psychology · 2008 · 591 citations
• How useful is executive control training? Age differences in near and far transfer of task‐switching training · Developmental Science · 2009 · 522 citations
• Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review. · Psychological Bulletin · 2018 · 482 citations
• Developmental language disorders – a follow‐up in later adult life. Cognitive, language and psychosocial outcomes · Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry · 2004 · 479 citations
• Neural correlates of socioeconomic status in the developing human brain · Developmental Science · 2012 · 438 citations

Most recent work

• Interpreting Polygenic Prediction of Cognitive Ability: Evidence for Direct, Reliable, and Portable Genetic Effects · Intelligence & Cognitive Abilities · 2026
• Interoceptive Performance is Unrelated to Mental Health Symptoms: Evidence From a Large Scale Multi-Domain Psychophysical Investigation · medRxiv · 2026
• Relational Integration and Attentional Control Are Crucial to Fluid Intelligence Together but Not Alone—An Experimental Investigation of Individual Difference in Relational Monitoring Processes · Journal of Intelligence · 2026
• Executive Function Flynn Effect Are Independent of Psychometric <i>⁠g</i> in Aging Populations Across Europe (2005-2022) · Intelligence & Cognitive Abilities · 2026
• Processing speed moderates the relationship between age and crystallized intelligence and influences the indirect effect of age on verbal working memory in middle-aged and older adults · Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience · 2026
• The Effects of Multi-Modal Intervention Protocols on Verbal Intelligence Domains in Pakistani School Students: A Randomized Crossover Trial · Nature-Nurture Journal of Psychology · 2026
• The relation between habituation and intelligence beyond infancy: A systematic literature review · Intelligence · 2026
• The Intelligence of Answerability: Why IQ, EQ, and SQ Are Not Enough · Open MIND · 2026
• The effectiveness of serious games for training of attention and executive functions: a systematic review · Frontiers in Child and Adolescent Psychiatry · 2026
• Impact of visual impairment severity on working memory and executive function in children and adolescents · Frontiers in Psychology · 2026

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