Open research questions in Emotional Intelligence and Performance

What the literature leaves open

• Emotional intelligence (EI) and conscientiousness are known to be associated with resilience; however, their interrelationships in Iranian hospital nurses have not been thoroughly investigated.

  Relationships among emotional intelligence, conscientiousness, and resilience in nurses at Hamadan teaching hospitals, Iran: a cross-sectional study · 2026 · DOI

• Implications and future research Future research should investigate how AI-enhanced learning platforms influence long-term learner development, particularly the retention and workplace transfer of EI skills.

  Bridging technical and emotional skill gaps: AI-enhanced adaptive learning and emotional intelligence in project management education · 2026 · DOI

• Taking 1.Perspective taking -.06*.42**.24** 2.Fantasy.21**.41** 3.Empathic Concern.22** 4.Edad -.07 -.03.01.00 Note: **p<.001 *p<.05 Descriptive analysis of the empathy factors revealed similar mean values across all expressions of empathy. The Fantasy and Personal Distress dimensions exhibited lower mean values and greater variability among the study participants. In contrast, the Perspective Taking 102 Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 24 (1), 93-116. ISSN: 1696-2095. 2026. no. 68 Sociodemographic and Academic Predictors of Empathy in Spanish Education Degrees and Empathic Concern dimensions had higher mean scores across the sample. Additionally, the mean scores exceeded the possible mean value in all dimensions except for Personal Distress (20), and the maximum possible scores (35) were achieved in all variables. These findings indicate a generally high level of empathy among the participating students. Table 2.

  Empathy Profile in Incoming Students of Early Childhood and Primary Education Teacher Training Programs in Andalusia · 2026 · DOI

• Although emotion regulation (ER) strategies have been shown to have positive effects on student learning, evidence regarding their effects in complex task situations remains underexplored.

  Applying emotion regulation strategies in complex tasks · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could explore the applicability of the TESQ in different cultural and linguistic contexts to further validate its cross-cultural validity and generalizability.

  Development and Validation of the Language Teachers’ Empathy Skills Scale · 2026 · DOI

• ● Organizations should develop the development of emotional intelligence. These programs should strengthen employees' self-awareness, empathy, and self-regulation skills. training programs that support ● Managers should systematize organizational support mechanisms. feedback processes, and Recognition of employees, reinforcement of organizational trust should be ensured. transparent ● Conflict management processes should be restructured with emotional intelligence-based approaches. Employees' ability to recognize and appropriately express their emotional responses should be developed. ● Human resources policies should be designed to increase the perception of organizational support. Fair compensation, flexible working practices, and psychological support services should be expanded. Future research should examine different sectors and sample groups. In particular, the relationship between emotional intelligence and variables including 1705 Özyılmaz / The Mediating Role of Perception of Organizational Support in the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Conflict Management Styles www.ijceas.com leadership styles, motivation, and organizational commitment should be analyzed comparatively. REFERENCES Alagöz, T., & Canlı, S. (2022). The relationship between the conflict management strategies used by teachers and their levels of emotional intelligence. Turkish Journal of Educational Studies, 9(2), 228–254. Aseery, M., Mahran, S., & Felemban, O. (2023). The relationship between emotional intelligence and conflict management strategies from the nurse managers’ e35669. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.35669 perspective.

  The Mediating Role of Perception of Organizational Support in the Effect of Emotional Intelligence on Conflict Management Styles · 2026 · DOI

• It proposes constructs, defines relationships, develops hypotheses, and outlines research designs — but empirical validation through primary data collection, scale development, confirmatory factor analysis, longitudinal studies, and field experiments remains an open agenda. Limits and Open Questions The following limits are acknowledged explicitly.

  Leadership in the Age of AI: Introducing FILE — The Five Intelligences of Leadership Evolution · 2026 · DOI

• Attempts must be made to reduce the difficulties faced by the physical education teachers so as to minimize their stress in the academic environment. 2. It is necessary for the education officials to give more importance to the profession of physical education and also persuade school management to have an equal outlook towards physical education like any other form of education. 3. It is recommended that the Psychological Stress Scale be administered periodically to monitor the level of psychological stress among physical education teachers, particularly for the purpose of designing and implementing counseling programs for those who experience high levels of psychological stress. REFERENCES Abu Allam, G. (1973). Psychological stress and its relationship to academic achievement (Unpublished master's thesis). Naif Arab University for Security Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Department of Social Sciences. Agarwal, P., Tagde, P., Shah, M., Hawelikar, M., Kaur, G., Gupta, G. K., & Pinjarkar, L. (2024). Navigating the Mind: Analysis of Stress and Mental Well-being. 2024 International Conference on Innovations and Challenges in Emerging Technologies (ICICET), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICICET59348.2024.10616359 257 Aggarwal, R., & Ranganathan, P. (2019). Study designs: Part 2 - Descriptive studies. In Perspectives in Clinical Research (Vol. 10, Number 1, pp. 34–36). Wolters Kluwer Medknow Publications. https://doi.org/10.4103/picr.PICR_154_18 Al-Adaili, A. A. (1995). Human and organizational behavior. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Institute of Public Administration. Al-Hayali, M. A. A. (2010). Psychological stress and its relationship with organizational deviations among physical education teachers (Unpublished master's thesis). College of Physical Education, University of Mosul, Iraq. Al-Kurdi, I. (1996). Job satisfaction among employees working in sports activities at public and private Jordanian universities. Dirasat: Educational Sciences, 23(2). Al-Otaibi, A. G. (1995). Job satisfaction among public and private sector employees in the State of Kuwait. Public Administration Journal, 30(4). Al-Rashoudi, M. A. (1997). Self-concept and its relationship to job satisfaction in security agencies (Unpublished master's thesis). Naif Arab Academy for Security Sciences, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Askar, A., & Abbas, A. A. (1988). The extent of employees’ exposure to work stress in selected social professions. Journal of Social Sciences, 6(1). Badran, A. H. A. (2006). Job satisfaction and effective leadership. Alam Al-Saudiya Magazine, (4), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Eirín-Nemiña, R., Sanmiguel-Rodríguez, A., & Rodríguez-Rodríguez, J. (2022). Professional satisfaction of physical education teachers. Sport, Education and Society, 27(1), 85–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/13573322.2020.1816540 Elkis-Abuhoff, D. (2026). Quantitative Investigations. In The Wiley Handbook of Art Therapy (pp. 706–713). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394215027.ch76 Faiq, F. A. (1996). Occupational work stress. Economic Horizons Journal, 17, 67–68. Ferguson, K., James, Y., & Bourgeault, I. (2022). Teacher Mental Health and Leaves of Absences: A Pilot Study Examining Gender and Care. Canadian Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne de l’éducation, 45(2), 315–349. www.cje-rce.ca Han, M. T. (2026). The regulatory role of physical activity in the indirect effect of mental workload on psychological well-being mediated by occupational stress in physical education 26(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-026-27232-4 teachers.

  <b>Psychological Stress and Its Relationship with Job Satisfaction among Physical Education Teachers in the Cities of Samarra and Tikrit</b> · 2026 · DOI

• Although the study provides valuable insights into the role of emotional intelligence in leadership, several limitations should be considered. First, the study was conducted with a relatively small sample size of respondents. A larger sample would provide more comprehensive and generalized results. Second, the research focused only on two organizations located in Gujarat. Therefore, the findings may not fully represent the leadership practices of organizations in other industries or geographic regions. Third, the data was collected primarily through questionnaires and self-reported responses. Such responses may sometimes be influenced by personal perceptions or biases of the respondents. Another limitation is the time constraint under which the research was conducted. Due to limited time available for the project, a deeper longitudinal study of leadership practices and emotional intelligence development could not be performed. Finally, the study mainly focuses on employee perceptions of leadership rather than measuring the emotional intelligence levels of leaders through standardized psychological assessments. Despite these limitations, the study still provides meaningful insights into how emotional intelligence influences leadership effectiveness and organizational performance.

  Role of Emotional Intelligence in Leadership Effectiveness · 2026 · DOI

• Culturally responsive education (CRE) is increasingly discussed as an inclusive pedagogical orientation, yet its relationship with adolescents’ moral reasoning remains underexplored.

  From emotion regulation to moral judgment: culturally responsive education and the psychological pathways of youth moral reasoning · 2026 · DOI

• Emotional intelligence (EI) is widely considered a core personal resource for social functioning in educational workplaces, yet evidence remains limited regarding (a) how EI varies across key demographic and work-role characteristics and (b) which EI facets are uniquely associated with workplace interpersonal relationships in private higher education contexts.

  Demographic differences in emotional intelligence and facet-level associations with interpersonal relationships among university teachers in Shandong private universities · 2026 · DOI

• This cross-sectional study identified patterns of associa- tion among EI, coping strategies, and perceived resilience in adolescents, however, the design precludes conclusions about temporal ordering, causal mechanisms, or mediation. As noted in prior methodological work, mediation analy- ses applied to cross-sectional data can produce biased esti- mates of indirect associations when temporal sequencing is not preserved (Cole & Maxwell, (Cole and Maxwell 2003); Maxwell & Cole, (Maxwell and Cole 2007); Maxwell et al., (Maxwell et al. 2011), and related challenges can persist even in short-term longitudinal designs (O’Laughlin et al., (O’Laughlin et al. 2018). Accordingly, consistent with an associational variable analysis framework (Weems, (Weems 2025), the indirect associations reported here are inter- preted as preliminary patterns of indirect association rather than evidence of mediation or mechanistic processes. The findings are therefore best understood as exploratory and hypothesis-generating, identifying potential intermediary variables to be examined in future longitudinal or experi- mental research. Significant overlap was observed between the study con- structs reflecting their close theoretical and empirical inter- relationships. For example, coping is often conceptualised as a protective factor within resilience frameworks, yet in this study it was also examined as an intermediate correlate linking EI and resilience. Similarly, aspects of Emotional Reasoning overlap conceptually with problem-focused coping. Such overlap is common in research on protective factors and reflects the interrelated nature of these adap- tive processes. Future research should continue to refine theoretical distinctions and use longitudinal or multimethod approaches to clarify the unique and shared contributions of EI, coping, and resilience. This study also relied on self-report measures, which assumes adequate insight in the participating sample. Future studies could benefit from including additional objective measures. Incorporating behavioural, informant, or physi- ological indicators would strengthen future investigations. Finally, although gender was statistically controlled, the underrepresentation of female participants may limit gen- eralisability. Future studies should aim for more balanced samples to more fully examine potential gender differences relevant to resilience-focused interventions.

  Unique Associational Links Among Emotional Intelligence, Coping, and Resilience in Adolescents · 2026 · DOI

• employees who can acknowledge is paramount. The current review synthesizes 14 recent studies to provide a holistic overview of how IH functions as a "moral virtue" (Hendy, 2022) and a critical "job resource" (Gao et al., 2025) in diverse settings, ranging from Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in China to healthcare facilities in Egypt and entrepreneurial ventures in Pakistan. By examining these papers, this review aims to establish the current state of knowledge regarding IH and identify the theoretical and empirical gaps that remain.

  The Cognitive Virtue in the Workplace: A Systematic Literature Review of Intellectual Humility and Organizational Outcomes · 2026 · DOI

• This study offers a comprehensive analysis of leadership effectiveness using a robust cross-sectional design. However, its findings are limited by the relatively small sample size and the focus on two urban centers. The restricted geographical scope prevents complete representation of leadership dynamics in less urban areas of Kazakhstan because they have potentially unique challenges compared to major urban centers.

  Leadership Effectiveness Among Healthcare Managers in Kazakhstan: A Cross-Sectional Study · 2026 · DOI

• According to the dramatic 29.5% drop in communication apprehension and an equal increase in emotional intelligence, this study suggests that business schools should not be confined to the old grammar-based teaching of ESL. Psychological Resilience Training must be taught as part of management training in the curriculum. In particular, institutions ought to have applied Stress-Inoculation seminars which involve CBM-based cognitive restructuring and simultaneous physiological measurements (e.g., heart-rate variability) when addressing a public. Moreover, it is suggested that teachers are encouraged to use a Global Manager pedagogical prism, which makes the functional intelligibility and emotional purpose more important than grammatical excellence. Institutions may avoid the problem of Identity Erosion by helping NNES students achieve a psychological safety net which will help them become inclusive leaders. Lastly, universities may consider AI-based simulation systems to provide students with a low-stake-setting to learn these psychological grounding strategies before going into high-stakes corporate bargaining so that their careers can be professionally sustainable and fairly compensated in the international job market.

  Applying Emotional Intelligence and Cognitive Behavioral Models to Improve Communication in Non-Native English-Speaking Management Students · 2026 · DOI

• Although this study contributes important insights into the role of EI in women’s leadership and management within the CoJMM, several limitations should be acknowledged. Firstly, the study adopted a qualitative approach with a relatively small sample of 15 women in leadership positions. While this sample size is appropriate for qualitative, in-depth research, it limits the extent to which the findings can be generalised to all female leaders within South African municipalities. The perspectives and insights captured are context specific and may not accurately reflect the experiences of women in municipalities with different organisational cultures, resource constraints or governance structures. leaders Secondly, the study was constrained by time and budgetary limitations, which restricted access to a broader or more diverse group of participants. Engagements were limited to those who were available and willing to participate within the study period, which may have excluded voices that could have offered alternative perspectives and viewpoints. Thirdly, the findings are based on self-reported experiences, which may be influenced by individuals’ willingness to disclose, recall accuracy and attitude towards EI and leadership. As with most qualitative studies, the interpretation of data is shaped by the researcher’s analytical lens, despite efforts to maintain reflexivity and methodological rigour. Fourthly, the study focused specifically on women leaders in one metropolitan municipality. Factors such as organisational structure, political environment and institutional culture may differ significantly across municipalities, and these differences may is perceived and influence how EI implemented in leadership roles. An additional limitation of this study is the potential for affirmation bias, as the research predominantly assumes EI to be a positive contributor to leadership effectiveness. Future study should investigate the potential in which EI leadership may not definitely contribute to better outcomes. Such research would offer a more balanced and thorough understanding of the function of EI in leadership.

  The role of emotional intelligence in women’s leadership · 2026 · DOI

• Although the paper references positive impacts of socioemotional learning on academic engagement, school climate, and student resilience, it does not specify longitudinal research designs comparing differential effectiveness of active methodologies versus structured socioemotional programs versus transversal curricular integration approaches in diverse educational contexts.

  Eficacia de estrategias didácticas para el desarrollo de la inteligencia emocional en contextos escolares · 2026 · DOI

• The research identifies inadequate institutional prioritization of socioemotional competencies as a constraint but does not propose measurable criteria or operational protocols for assessing the degree to which schools have integrated emotional intelligence development into their pedagogical practice and institutional culture.

  Eficacia de estrategias didácticas para el desarrollo de la inteligencia emocional en contextos escolares · 2026 · DOI

• The paper notes insufficient public policy formulation for integral student development but does not delineate which specific policy mechanisms (legislative mandates, funding allocation models, institutional accountability measures) are needed to operationalize emotional intelligence as a transversal curriculum axis in education systems.

  Eficacia de estrategias didácticas para el desarrollo de la inteligencia emocional en contextos escolares · 2026 · DOI

• While the paper emphasizes that teacher initial and continuous training is indispensable for sustainable implementation of emotional development strategies, it lacks specification of the required training content, duration, assessment criteria, or validated competency frameworks for measuring teacher socioemotional competence development.

  Eficacia de estrategias didácticas para el desarrollo de la inteligencia emocional en contextos escolares · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies curricular overload as a significant barrier to implementing emotional intelligence strategies but does not specify which curriculum components should be reduced or reorganized to systematically integrate socioemotional competencies across subjects without displacing existing academic content.

  Eficacia de estrategias didácticas para el desarrollo de la inteligencia emocional en contextos escolares · 2026 · DOI

• The particular cultural and social characteristics of Tahuamanu province in the Peruvian Amazon, including high reported violence against women, unequal access to mental health services, and limited educational opportunities, conditions the expression of emotions and modes of affective bonding but requires further investigation.

  Inteligencia emocional sobre los celos y la dependencia emocional en parejas de la selva peruana · 2026 · DOI

• Multiple unpublished dissertations are cited (Hodge 1997, Robinson 2004, Silabay 2008, Sucuano 2012) without access to their full documented limitations or recommendations for future research.

  Differentiated Instruction in Mathematics Achievement: Validating Mckenzie’s Domain of Multiple Intelligences · 2026 · DOI

• The referenced study by Tomlinson, Moon, & Callahan (1998) appears to be cut off mid-sentence ('How well are we addressing academic diversi'), suggesting incomplete documentation of research questions or gaps.

  Differentiated Instruction in Mathematics Achievement: Validating Mckenzie’s Domain of Multiple Intelligences · 2026 · DOI

• The paper title references McKenzie's Domain of Multiple Intelligences but the excerpt provided does not contain explicit discussion of research gaps, limitations, or future work directions from the paper's conclusion or discussion section.

  Differentiated Instruction in Mathematics Achievement: Validating Mckenzie’s Domain of Multiple Intelligences · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Emotional Intelligence and Performance

• An empirical study of decline in empathy in medical school · Medical Education · 2004 · 557 citations
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and work attitudes, behavior and outcomes · Journal of Managerial Psychology · 2003 · 460 citations
• Emotional intelligence in nursing work · Journal of Advanced Nursing · 2004 · 285 citations
• A review and critique of emotional intelligence measures · Journal of Organizational Behavior · 2005 · 233 citations
• Is Emotional Intelligence an Advantage? An Exploration of the Impact of Emotional and General Intelligence on Individual Performance · The Journal of Social Psychology · 2002 · 221 citations
• A preliminary study of empathy, emotional intelligence and examination performance in MBChB students · Medical Education · 2007 · 153 citations
• TRAIT EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND HAPPINESS · Social Behavior and Personality An International Journal · 2003 · 151 citations
• The relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership in school leaders: a systematic review · Cambridge Journal of Education · 2021 · 149 citations
• Emotional intelligence in medical education: a critical review · Medical Education · 2014 · 148 citations
• The Contributions of Emotional Intelligence and Social Support for Adaptive Career Progress Among Italian Youth · Journal of Career Development · 2014 · 147 citations

Most recent work

• Artificial emotional intelligence for project management: a VIKOR-based prioritization of human-centric enablers and adoption strategies · International Journal of Managing Projects in Business · 2026
• Empirical Foundations and Conceptual Pathways for Social Worker-Led Emotional Intelligence Interventions in Healthcare · International Journal of Humanities and Social Science · 2026
• Association Between Weekly Moderate-to-Vigorous Physical Activity and Emotional Intelligence Factors in Spanish Adolescents: Perspectives for Digital and Gamified Interventions · Journal of Intelligence · 2026
• Emotional intelligence and academic resilience among international students in cross-cultural contexts · Journal of International Students · 2026
• Academic Performance in Times of Change: The Role of Emotional Intelligence · Technology Knowledge and Learning · 2026
• Mapping the landscape of emotional intelligence research: a bibliometric analysis of trends, patterns, and future directions · Discover Education · 2026
• Differentiated Instruction in Mathematics Achievement: Validating Mckenzie’s Domain of Multiple Intelligences · American Journal of Education and Technology · 2026
• The association between trait emotional intelligence and the quality of life of stroke patients: the mediating role of resilience · BMC Psychology · 2026
• Predictors of Psychological Well-Being Among Pre-Service Teachers: Emotional Intelligence and Occupational Anxiety · Journal of Intelligence · 2026
• Inteligencia emocional sobre los celos y la dependencia emocional en parejas de la selva peruana · Acción Psicológica · 2026

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