Open research questions in Land Use and Ecosystem Services

What the literature leaves open

• Although these measures promoted vegetation recovery and enhanced carbon sequestration in some regions, their carbon-sink effects were insufficient to offset the increased carbon emissions and carbon-sink losses associated with the expansion of construction land [36].

  Assessing land use and carbon stock dynamics coupled with the PLUS-InVEST-OMGD model: a multi-scenario simulation in Sichuan Province, China · 2026 · DOI

• Six local experts, comprising government planning officials (Experts A, B, and C) and community representatives (Experts D, E, and F), completed pairwise comparison matrices evaluating the eight candidate driving factors. All expert panels achieved CRs below 0.10, confirming adequate coherence in judgment (Table 2). Aggregated weights were computed as the arithmetic mean of individual expert weights.

  Evaluating the Driving Forces Behind Urban Land Transition in a Coastal Region: Integration of Geospatial and Local Knowledge Approach · 2026 · DOI

• The study recommends the integration of GIS-based spatial analysis and predictive modeling into urban planning strategies to promote sustainable land use management. Policymakers should implement green infrastructure initiatives to mitigate the rapid decline of vegetation and address the environmental impacts of urban expansion. Additionally, urban planners must adopt data-driven decision-making approaches using NDVI and NDBI analyses to monitor land cover changes and improve resource allocation. In education, incorporating spatial modeling techniques into the geography curriculum will enhance students' analytical skills and prepare them for careers in urban and environmental management. Finally, further research should explore the socioeconomic and ecological implications of urban growth to develop comprehensive strategies for balancing development with environmental sustainability.

  Advancing urban geography pedagogy in a South African metropolis through geospatial intelligence and applied spatial modelling · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the prioritization of land degradation hotspots in southeastern Brazil, we propose targeted interventions tailored to the socio-environmental context of the Rio de Janeiro study area. Firstly, for the unstable Areas: these areas, encompassing High Priority (140.17 km2) and Medium Priority (77.97 km2) zones, are characterized by active sheet and rill erosion, often at agricultural frontiers and land-use interfaces. Curative and protective interventions include: • Soil Conservation Infrastructure: implement contour bunds, terraces, and vegetative barriers in agricultural zones experiencing dominant sheet erosion to reduce runoff velocity and soil loss. • Ecological Restoration: reforest critical high-priority zones using native Atlantic Forest species to stabilize de- graded slopes and restore hydrological function, particularly in areas adjacent to remaining forest fragments. • Governance and Enforcement: strengthen the enforcement of the Brazilian Forest Code, ensuring the protec- tion and restoration of Permanent Preservation Areas (APPs) and Legal Reserves within agricultural prop- erties. • Sustainable Land Management Support: provide technical assistance and incentives to farmers in ero- sion-prone areas for adopting soil conservation practices and integrated crop-livestock-forestry systems. Secondly, for the At-Risk Stable Areas: measures for these currently stable but vulnerable lands, primarily classified as Medium Priority (1560.80 km2) focus on maintaining stability and preventing future degradation: • Sustainable Agricultural Intensification: Promote conservation agriculture, agroforestry, and soil cover main- tenance in unmanaged areas with agricultural potential to prevent their conversion into future erosion hot- spots. Scientific Reports | (2026) 16:22091 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-026-49578-w 11 • Land-Use Zoning and Planning: integrate degradation risk maps into municipal and regional land-use plan- ning (Zoneamento Ecológico-Econômico - ZEE) to guide sustainable development away from high-risk zones and protect areas with high conservation value. • Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES): develop and implement PES schemes to incentivize landowners in stable medium-priority areas to maintain forest cover, adopt sustainable practices, and avoid land conversion. To enhance feasibility, these measures should be integrated into existing state and municipal environmental policies and supported by funding mechanisms such as environmental compensation and the Brazilian Fund for Biodiversity (FUNBIO). Future efforts must prioritize participatory validation of the mapped degradation zones with local stakeholders and ground-truthing of erosion processes. By situating the PAP/RAC framework within Brazil’s robust environmental governance structure, this study provides a replicable, spatially explicit model for guiding soil conservation, ecosystem restoration, and sustainable land-use planning in tropical coastal regions.

  Geovisualizing land degradation risk in Southeast Brazil Using remote sensing and GIS-based assessment · 2026 · DOI

• However, how ESV patterns and their nonlinear association mechanisms vary among cities with distinct climatic backgrounds remains insufficiently quantified under a unified valuation framework.

  Spatiotemporal patterns and nonlinear drivers of urban ecosystem service value across cities in different climate zones · 2026 · DOI

• Highway corridors are increasingly being discussed not only as zones of ecological disturbance but also as components of regional green infrastructure with potential carbon sequestration functions, yet their long-term evolutionary characteristics and multi-scale associated factors remain insufficiently understood.

  Gradient Effects of Vegetation Cover and Carbon Sequestration in Highway Corridors: A Case Study of Shandong Province, China · 2026 · DOI

• Existing studies have usually evaluated LCD or IULU separately, whereas the dynamic relationship between carbon-transition capacity and land-use intensification under rapid urbanization remains insufficiently clarified.

  Transition of the Relationship Between Low Carbon Development and Intensive Urban Land Use Under Rapid Urbanization: Evidence from the Middle Reaches of the Yangtze River Urban Agglomeration · 2026 · DOI

• To improve future planning and implementation of SLM practices, we suggest: (i) use local and scientific knowledge in SLM planning to ensure context-specific, holistic solu- tions that reflect both ecological data and community realities; (ii) design inclusive and equitable interventions by addressing the diverse needs of community groups based on gender, wealth, and seasonal resource use patterns; (iii) promote low-cost, locally adapted practices to maximize effectiveness and long-term stability; (iv) remove par- ticipation barriers by offering labor support, cost sharing, and aligning activities with seasonal workloads to enable broader smallholder involvement; (v) ensure continu- ous follow-up, maintenance, and community incentives to sustain engagement and impact; and (vi) emphasize ecosystem-based and adaptive approaches by restoring Tegegne et al. Discover Sustainability (2026) 7:943 Page 26 of 29 ecosystem services and using hybrid monitoring (scientific and local input) for continu- ous improvement.

  Using local knowledge and scientific assessment for inclusive land restoration in Halaba, Central Ethiopia · 2026 · DOI

• What distinguishes this study is twofold: First, it reveals the spatiotemporal Page 23 of 33 74 distribution patterns of CCDG, which have not been fully explored in prior studies; second, it identifies the spatiotemporal evolution pathways from a dynamic perspec- tive, thereby complementing and extending previous static analyses.

  Convergence or divergence? Spatiotemporal coupling coordination analysis between digital intelligence and greening in Chinese agriculture · 2026 · DOI

• These findings support Hypothesis 3 by showing that HQ mapping alone is insufficient for decision-oriented restoration unless it is translated into network constraints and spatial priorities.

  Geomorphology-informed habitat quality dynamics and connectivity-based restoration prioritization in semi-arid coal-mining landscapes · 2026 · DOI

• Despite the substantial efforts towards improving declining species and habitats across the continent and the limited success in measured improvements of biodiversity trends in the protected areas, the potential issue of fragmentation and configuration of the documented Natura 2000 sites has not been analysed in depth.

  Small patches dominate the Natura 2000 network of protected areas in Europe · 2026 · DOI

• These findings indicate that quasi-experimental approaches better capture phased policy effects than conventional descriptive comparisons, and suggest that simple boundary controls are insufficient; instead, buffer zones should be incorporated into integrated management frameworks to mitigate external development pressures.

  Conservation Effectiveness and Spatial Drivers of Qianjiangyuan National Park: Causal Evidence from a Quasi-Experimental Framework · 2026 · DOI

• Despite the robust empirical design and comprehensive analytical framework, several limi- tations merit careful consideration and point to promising avenues for future research. First, this study is conducted at the provincial scale, which is well suited for capturing long- term trends, interregional interactions, and policy-relevant spillover effects. However, such an aggregated scale cannot fully reflect intra-provincial heterogeneity in urbanization pathways, land-use practices, irrigation conditions, and pollution intensity. Given the substantial diversity in agricultural systems and environmental conditions across China, the use of provincial units may mask important local variations, particularly when interpreting spatial spillover effects and deriving region-specific policy implications. Future research could integrate city- or county- level data to better capture localized dynamics and improve the precision of spatial analysis. Second, several methodological limitations should be acknowledged. Endogeneity may be a potential concern, as new-type urbanization and cultivated land ecological effi- ciency may involve mutual interactions over time, and some control variables may also be indirectly affected by urbanization, raising possible omitted-variable issues. In addition, although the entropy weighting method is widely used to construct composite indicators, the results may still involve measurement uncertainty due to variable selection and weighting schemes. Furthermore, the reduced-form spatial econometric model captures overall nonlin- ear and spatial associations but cannot fully identify underlying institutional mechanisms. While robustness checks are conducted, these limitations cannot be completely eliminated. Future research may further improve identification by incorporating more rigorous causal inference strategies (e.g., instrumental variable approaches or quasi-experimental designs), addressing measurement uncertainty through alternative indicator constructions, and better disentangling institutional channels using micro-level or quasi-experimental data. Third, although this study incorporates multiple moderating factors to explore the under- lying mechanisms, the estimated moderating relationships should be interpreted as statisti- cal associations rather than causal effects. Some micro-level processes—such as farmers’ behavioral responses, institutional enforcement capacity, and the adoption pathways of green agricultural technologies—are not directly observed in this study and are only indi- rectly reflected at the macro level. Future work combining micro-survey data, quasi-exper- 1 3K. Ge et al. imental designs, or high-resolution remote-sensing information could further unpack these mechanisms and strengthen causal interpretation. Addressing these limitations would not alter the core findings of this study but would deepen the empirical granularity and theoretical scope of future research on the sustainabil- ity implications of urbanization.

  When urbanization becomes an ecological opportunity: Nonlinear and spatially dependent effects of new-type urbanization on cultivated land eco-efficiency in China · 2026 · DOI

• In Mapanget, development permits should be directed toward contiguous edge and infill expansion by applying phased growth management, minimum adjacency requirements for new housing estates, and infrastructure provision priorities limited to areas connected with existing built-up clusters.

  IDENTIFICATION OF URBAN SPRAWL TYPES BASED ON THE SPRAWL EXPANSION PATTERN INDEX IN SIX PERI-URBAN DISTRICTS OF MANADO CITY, INDONESIA · 2026 · DOI

• Summary This study examined the land use and land cover (LULC) changes in the municipality of Talavera, Nueva Ecija using Geographic Information System (GIS) tools and spatial analysis techniques. The analysis was based on secondary geospatial datasets, specifically pre-classified LULC shapefiles obtained from the Geoportal Philippines and processed using QGIS. The study focused on a five-year period, comparing land cover conditions between 2020 and 2025. The results indicate that Talavera remained predominantly agricultural in both years, with annual crops occupying the largest share of land area. However, there was a measurable increase in built-up areas and a corresponding decrease in agricultural land, particularly annual crops. Spatial patterns further suggest that development tends to expand along major road networks and near existing settlements, indicating a gradual and observable trend of urbanization. These changes suggest a transition in land use that may be associated with increasing development activities while the overall agricultural character of the municipality remains largely intact. 5.2 Conclusions Based on the objectives of the study, it can be concluded that the land use and land cover categories in Talavera were successfully identified for both 2020 and 2025, including annual crops, built-up areas, inland water, and other minor classifications. The total area and percentage distribution of each land cover category were also determined, showing that agricultural land remained dominant while built-up areas comprised the second largest share in both years. The study further quantified and analyzed spatial changes between 2020 and 2025, revealing a decrease in annual crops and an increase in built-up areas, along with observable patterns of land transition, particularly near roads and urban centers. The findings suggest that these changes may be associated with factors such as development pressures, 10101 Sherina Tracy L. Fajardo1, ETJ Volume 11 Issue 05 May 2026 “Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Change in Talavera, Nueva Ecija from 2020 to 2025 Using GIS Mapping” 7.

  Assessment of Land Use and Land Cover Change in Talavera, Nueva Ecija from 2020 to 2025 Using GIS Mapping · 2026 · DOI

• Although these findings are promising, some limitations should be noted. To begin with, the study focused on one district of Lahore, limiting its external validity. Second, only 2035 was projected, not long-term dynamics like climate change effects. Third, while socio-eco- E. Malik et al.1 3 nomic, morphological, and ecological drivers were included, other vital dimensions such as transport flows, governance, and informal settlements were not explicitly modelled. Future studies should extend the MDBN-CA model to other fast-urbanising cities, include more drivers (i.e., climate resilience and mobility systems), and use explainable AI to enhance interpretability among policymakers. Such measures would improve the stability and exter- nalizability of the model, as they would be more applicable in sustainable urban growth research. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at h t t p s : / / d o i . o r g / 1 0 . 1 0 0 7 / s 1 0 6 6 8 - 0 2 6 - 0 7 6 6 7 - w . Acknowledgements The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Research and Scientific Stud- ies at King Khalid University for funding this work through large group Research Project under grant number RGP2/481/46. The support of Jizong Jiao is also acknowledged, without his help and advice this research would not have been possible. Author contributions E.M. wrote the main manuscript text and curated data, M.N. re-wrote the initial draft, J.J. supervised and investigated, M.A.K. reviewed and edited, and A.F.A.A. visualised and analysed. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Funding The authors extend their appreciation to the Deanship of Research and Scientific Studies at King Khalid University for funding this work through large group Research Project under grant number RGP2/481/46. This study was funded by the Geological Survey of Pakistan Geoscience Advance Research Labs. Data availability Data is available on reasonable request made to author, Esha Malik.

  A hybrid MDBN-CA framework for simulating urban growth and optimizing multidimensional zoning in sustainable urban planning · 2026 · DOI

• Nature-based solutions and adaptive ecosystem management are discussed as supporting biodiversity conservation and climate adaptation, but the paper provides no quantitative assessment of which specific management interventions most effectively maintain functional diversity or ecosystem stability under combined climate and anthropogenic stress gradients.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• The paper presents soil carbon storage capacity as a modeled variable but does not describe the carbon modeling methodology, parameterization datasets, or validation against measured soil carbon pools. Direct field measurements of soil organic carbon across the risk gradient are needed to verify whether modeled carbon storage patterns reflect actual carbon sequestration capacity in high-risk versus low-risk ecosystems.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• River valleys, semi-arid landscapes, and intensively used agricultural zones show higher representation in medium and high relative risk categories, but the paper does not specify which of these ecosystem types was preferentially sampled or underrepresented. Systematic comparison of risk patterns and biodiversity-stability relationships across explicitly defined ecosystem types (riparian, grassland, cropland) is absent.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• The modeling results indicate that species asynchrony and variability in ecosystem functional responses may contribute to ecosystem stability fluctuations, particularly in arid and semi-arid ecosystems under heat stress and water limitation. However, no quantitative framework is provided for measuring species asynchrony or linking specific functional response types to stability outcomes in water-limited environments.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies statistical associations between functional diversity (β = 0.64) and ecosystem stability but explicitly acknowledges these represent statistical associations rather than mechanistic causal relationships. Direct experimental manipulation of functional trait diversity while controlling for climate variability and soil carbon dynamics is needed to establish causal pathways underlying ecosystem resilience.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• The ecosystem stability model (R² = 0.71, RMSEA = 0.045, CFI = 0.93) was developed at an undisclosed spatial resolution and data aggregation scale. The paper does not specify how model performance changes across different spatial resolutions or temporal aggregation intervals, limiting understanding of the model's applicability to fine-scale management or coarser regional assessments.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• The spatial risk assessment relies on regional-scale statistical associations derived from NDVI, moisture index and land-use indicators, but local ecosystem characteristics and environmental management practices may alter these patterns significantly. Site-specific validation of the composite spatial index across different ecosystem types and management regimes is needed to establish how local conditions modify the regional risk classifications.

  Biodiversity Dynamics and Changes in Ecosystem Functions: In The Context of Climate Change · 2026 · DOI

• The study demonstrates VARI's effectiveness for vegetation monitoring between 2022–2024 but does not establish the minimum temporal sampling frequency, spatial resolution threshold, or sensor sensitivity requirements needed to detect early-stage ecological degradation before large-scale construction begins, limiting its applicability for preventive adaptive planning in similar rapid-urbanization contexts.

  Monitoring the Changes of Natural to Urban Environment in Indonesia’s New Capital City Development through Historical Imagery · 2026 · DOI

• While the paper references Singapore's City in Nature initiative and Curitiba's green corridor approach as successful models, it does not develop or test context-specific green infrastructure design parameters, corridor placement algorithms, or reforestation prioritization frameworks tailored to IKN's tropical peatland and lowland forest context to guide adaptive decision-making for mitigation.

  Monitoring the Changes of Natural to Urban Environment in Indonesia’s New Capital City Development through Historical Imagery · 2026 · DOI

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