Open research questions in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation

What the literature leaves open

• Citizen scientist records contained in global online biodiversity datasets were scarce and of limited value, averaging less than one YBO record per month for the study area prior to 2014.

  The recolonisation, host and habitat-use by yellow-billed oxpeckers (Buphagus africanus) in the Kruger National Park · 2026 · DOI

• The geographic and the- matic gaps identified underscore the urgency of expanding research into remote and border areas, where IWT dynamics remain poorly understood. Such dynamics reinforce the need to develop complementary monitoring methodologies capable of capturing the nuances of digital trade and increasing the visibility of practices that remain poorly documented.

  The Illegal Wildlife Trade in the Brazilian Amazon: A Systematic Review of Patterns, Routes, and Drivers · 2026 · DOI

• Thus, as the actual dynamics of trade remain poorly understood to both science and enforce- ment agencies, conservation policies risk being inadequate precisely where IWT is hardest to monitor.

  The Illegal Wildlife Trade in the Brazilian Amazon: A Systematic Review of Patterns, Routes, and Drivers · 2026 · DOI

• Given the limited literature on mink specifically, I draw on EU guidance to show how welfare is unevenly distributed across methods: trapping concentrates risks around device performance, restraint, and delayed death, while hunting foregrounds pursuit, stress, and the possibility of wounding.

  To catch a predator: Regimes of killing the mink in Sweden · 2026 · DOI

• While this approach helped infer establishment success, it was limited by a reliance on male detections and did not account for sex- based differences in detectability or survival. While nest survival data from eight years of monitoring a small population of kakaruai outside Orokonui has not yet been fully analysed, available data indicate high nest failure rates in many of the years, with evidence of mammalian predation, although cause of nest failure was not always established (GP, unpubl.

  Evaluating the dispersal of a translocated kakaruai (South Island robin; Petroica australis) population out of Orokonui Ecosanctuary · 2026 · DOI

• o r g / p a c k a g e = A I C c m o d a v g McKinney ML (2002) Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation: the impacts of urbanization on native species are poorly studied, but educating a highly urbanized human population about these impacts can greatly improve species conservation in all ecosys- tems.

  High occupancy of non-native carnivores in riparian ecosystems along an urban gradient in Chile · 2026 · DOI

• Evaluation with a wetland- specific metric showed KDE consistently overestimated range extent and included unsuitable habitats, and a-LoCoH yielded mixed results, but these indicated that the method was not effective in excluding unused habitats.

  Estimating habitat-constrained home range size in semi-aquatic mammals: a method comparison study on the European mink (Mustela lutreola) · 2026 · DOI

• Currently, the resources allocated for the conservation of biodiversity are typically limited, so the prioritization of areas to be conserved has become an important issue, where the use of this scarce resource should maximize species conservation (Hobbs and Kristjanson 2003; Hodge 2015).

  Suitable areas for the conservation of six wild felids in Mexico and their overlap with protected areas · 2026 · DOI

• While detailed analysis of population removal data can provide in-depth understanding of population structure and dynamics 52, caution should be used in the interpretation due to several limitations. First, in our context where the population sample came from control operations, there may be multiple biases inherent to this type of sample. For instance, it was likely that trappers hired by the control program targeted larger groups to increase the trapping effort pay-off, or because larger groups were easier to detect. This could under-represent small ARTICLE IN PRESS ARTICLE IN PRESS ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT sounders, or single individuals, particularly as single individuals were often males with more variable movement patterns 53,54. There was also variation in how wary of traps different individuals and groups were, and this may be related to age, life stage, and group structure, so that the probability of capture may differ with these characteristics thereby influencing the composition of our sample. The capture of two single females that were lactating, for instance, suggests that these had likely recently farrowed but the litter was missed or lost. Next, through the course of the control program, trapping in the summer months was more challenging due to the abundance of food resources making bait less attractive. This likely meant that our sample under-represented the population during this season (Fig 3). This challenged the robustness of our conclusions involving temporal comparisons and trends. Definition of age categories was challenged by the absence of accurate dental aging data. This meant that we were not able to report population structure based on standard age class definitions. The use of an empirical body length threshold for sexual maturity came with challenges as it represented a proxy for a minimum age of sexual activity, but effectively confounded age and sexual maturity. We still believe this was helpful in describing population structure, but precluded from estimating age-class-specific reproductive parameters. Our estimates of ages also came with several limitations. First, the aging of individuals in the U.S. was done in categorical increments, which reduced the precision and accuracy of the relationship between morphometrics and age. Second, we selected data from Texas wild pigs for their similarity in weight distribution and body length range to Alberta wild pigs, however, we cannot exclude differences in the growth patterns of these two populations. This could reduce the accuracy of the age estimates of juveniles in the Alberta dataset, and therefore the ARTICLE IN PRESS ARTICLE IN PRESS ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT related estimates of juvenile survival and recruitment. Finally, the typical shape of growth curves resulted in inherent inaccuracies in size-based aging, particularly as we reached the growth plateau. This could significantly reduce the accuracy of our age estimates, particularly in the 8-12 month interval.

  Population structure and reproductive ecology of wild pigs at the northern edge of the North American invasive range · 2026 · DOI

• Specific success criteria were defined a priori to evaluate the reintroduction outcomes objectively throughout the monitoring period. Survival for at least thirty days post-release constituted the primary metric for initial establishment within the study. Documented foraging behavior and natural den usage served as secondary indicators of adaptation within the ecosystem. Absence of hu- man dependency behaviors confirmed the efficacy of the dehabituation proto- cols implemented during development. Formal inferential statistics were not applicable due to the small sample size of two released individuals. Descriptive statistics and qualitative observations formed the basis for evaluating protocol performance and outcomes accurately. This approach frames the study as a proof-of-concept rather than a generalized population model for the species. Future applications should incorporate power analyses and predefined quanti- tative endpoints for broader validation and replication. The need for location-specific adaptation of habitat assessment protocols before their implementation in various ecological contexts is acknowledged. Remote sensing tools alone cannot capture ground-level habitat suitability for vulnerable otter populations in all regions. Field validation through recon- naissance surveys remains essential for verifying connectivity and resource availability. Land use changes often alter ecosystems in ways remote sens- ing cannot detect without ground truthing processes. Therefore, practitioners should integrate local ecological knowledge with our framework for improved conservation results. This may support reintroduction efforts across varied an- thropogenic landscapes throughout the Neotropics. Long-term monitoring remains essential to assess reproductive success within the wild environment over future extended periods accurately. Survival indicates initial establishment, but breeding confirms restoration of essential Estuarine Management and Technologies 3: 149–167 (2026), DOI: 10.3897/emt.3.191084 164 Marcelo Tosatti et al.: From captive breeding to wild reintroduction ecological function within ecosystems over extended periods reliably. Despite screening, subclinical pathogen transmission to wild populations remains pos- sible during the future release process occasionally. An extension of the quarantine period to thirty days prior to release is ad- vised, as is routine health monitoring of wild conspecifics after release. Small founder size risks reducing genetic adaptive potential within the receiving population over successive generations substantially. Future releases must incorporate genetic augmentation, and the levels of heterozygosity must be continuously monitored. Reintroduction success depends on concurrent threat mitigation, including dog control and road crossings within the landscape consistently. The integra- tion of translocation initiatives with integrated landscape management is recom- mended to ensure the long-term survival of the population. Expanding the genetic database of wild populations across Brazil is important for minimizing translo- cation risks for future actions. Genomic data may guide future pairing strategies, supporting genetic diversity and population resilience over time significantly.

  From captive breeding to wild reintroduction: A case study of a protocol for the neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis) in Southern Brazil · 2026 · DOI

• investment and multi-stakeholder collaboration In light of the demonstrated capabilities of artificial intelligence (AI) and computer vision (CV), as well as the persistent technical, ethical, and infrastructural constraints identified throughout this review, a coordinated set of policy and research investment priorities is required to ensure responsible, equitable, and scalable deployment across faunal systems. The following recommendations are proposed to guide future funding strategies, regulatory frameworks, and multi-stakeholder collaboration. First, ethical compliance and algorithmic bias auditing must be formally mandated as integral components of the AI development and deployment lifecycle. Regulatory 24 Computing and Artificial Intelligence 2025, 3(3), 4243. bodies and funding agencies should require adherence to responsible innovation frameworks and enforce systematic bias assessment using established auditing tools such as AI Fairness 360 (AIF360). These measures are essential for identifying and mitigating data skew and contextual gaps that arise from non-representative training datasets and culturally misaligned system design. Ensuring that AI systems respect region-specific husbandry practices and perform equitably across diverse production scales is particularly critical for supporting smallholder and traditional farming communities, which are most vulnerable to exclusion through poorly adapted technological solutions [21]. Second, strategic investment in edge computing architectures for conservation applications should be prioritized by both public and private stakeholders. Remote wildlife monitoring and conservation interventions are fundamentally constrained by limited connectivity and energy infrastructure. As demonstrated by the architectural success of devices such as the Sentinel platform, localized, low-power, edge-based AI processing represents the most viable pathway for achieving near–real-time situational awareness and actionable intelligence in remote environments [1]. Targeted funding for the development, field validation, and scaling of ruggedized edge-computing platforms is therefore essential for extending AI-enabled conservation capabilities into biodiversity-rich yet infrastructure-poor regions. Third, cross-sectoral data standardization initiatives should be established as a core research priority. Collaborative efforts among academic institutions, industry partners, conservation organizations, and government agencies are needed to develop standardized protocols for data collection, annotation, and metadata representation. Such standardization is critical for enabling robust transfer learning across species, ecosystems, and geographic contexts, thereby reducing the costly and labor-intensive dependence on manual annotation that currently constrains the deployment of high-resolution behavioral phenotyping systems [3].

  The algorithmic guardians: AI and computer vision for global faunal welfare, conservation, and future policy trajectories in the Indian subcontinent · 2026 · DOI

• The analysis characterized habitat quality through seasonal suitability metrics and winter severity through standardized indices, but did not explicitly incorporate forage nutritional content (protein, digestibility) or quantify how shifts in forage phenology due to temperature changes affect mule deer recruitment independent of habitat area availability.

  The interplay of habitat quality and temperature shape demographic patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in North America · 2026 · DOI

• The leave-one-out cross-validation (LOO) model selection approach was used to identify best-fitting covariate combinations, but the study did not present predictive performance validation on geographically independent mule deer populations or herd units outside the Wyoming study area to assess model generalizability across broader North American contexts.

  The interplay of habitat quality and temperature shape demographic patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in North America · 2026 · DOI

• Winter covariates were summarized across GPS-defined winter use areas to assess conditions where age ratios are determined, but the study did not evaluate how fine-scale spatial heterogeneity in winter habitat suitability (e.g., microhabitat variation within herd units) influences recruitment ratios or whether coarser spatial aggregation masks locally important habitat drivers.

  The interplay of habitat quality and temperature shape demographic patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in North America · 2026 · DOI

• The study documented that herd units experienced an average of 9.5 months of severe drought (scPDSI < -3) over five-year periods, but did not quantify how cumulative drought duration versus intensity affects mule deer age ratios, nor did it model potential non-linear or lagged demographic responses to prolonged drought conditions.

  The interplay of habitat quality and temperature shape demographic patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in North America · 2026 · DOI

• The Bayesian mixed model framework for recruitment ratios used univariate model selection followed by multi-covariate combinations to address multicollinearity within variable categories, but did not explore interaction effects between summer habitat quality, winter severity, and summer abiotic conditions on mule deer demographic responses, which may be critical for understanding threshold effects during drought periods.

  The interplay of habitat quality and temperature shape demographic patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in North America · 2026 · DOI

• The study determined proportions of migratory versus resident mule deer using GPS data weighted across adjacent herd units, but did not explicitly model how inter-annual variation in migration timing or destination shifts affect the spatiotemporal alignment between demographic estimates (age ratios on wintering grounds) and summer habitat covariates across different herd units.

  The interplay of habitat quality and temperature shape demographic patterns of mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in North America · 2026 · DOI

• The generality of the HSH remains to be tested across larger scales, wherein human shielding may prove generalizable, or diminish with variability in ecological contexts.

  Mammalian predator and prey responses to recreation and land use across multiple scales provide limited support for the human shield hypothesis · 2023 · DOI

• As a nocturnal species in the remote mountains of the Northern Tien Shan, the behavioral ecology and, in particular, the activity rhythms of the Turkestan lynx (Lynx lynx isabellina Blyth, 1847) are poorly studied.

  Camera trapping efficiency in studying daily activity patterns of Turkestan lynx in the Northern Tien Shan · 2023 · DOI

• We then extend the unmarked SCR model to incorporate categorical, partially identifying covariates, which reduce the level of uncertainty in individual identity, increasing the reliability and precision of density estimates, and allowing reliable density estimation in scenarios with higher IDI values and with more sparse data.

  Spatial capture–recapture for categorically marked populations with an application to genetic capture–recapture · 2019 · DOI

• Abstract Despite the increasing importance of new survey tools such as unmanned aerial vehicles ( UAV s), the implications of how their spatial deployment may interact with species detection errors have not yet been assessed.

  Learning to fly: integrating spatial ecology with unmanned aerial vehicle surveys · 2018 · DOI

• The models of Cormack, Jolly and Seber (CJS) are remarkable in providing a rich set of inferences about population survival, recruitment, abundance and even sampling probabilities from a seemingly limited data source: a matrix of 1’s and 0’s reflecting animal captures and recaptures at multiple sampling occasions.

  And the First One Now Will Later Be Last: Time-Reversal in Cormack–Jolly–Seber Models · 2016 · DOI

• While bushmeat consumption is thought to be common in the Tarangire-Manyara ecosystem (TME) of Northern Tanzania, its magnitude and drivers are not well understood.

  Bushmeat Consumption in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem, Tanzania · 2015 · DOI

• Based on these results we concluded that energetic models using morphological and physiological variables alone were insufficient to predict kill rates, and proposed that rather than focusing future research on refining current energetic models, future research should be directed at understanding the behavioral ecology driving carnivore kill rates.

  The difference between killing and eating: ecological shortcomings of puma energetic models · 2014 · DOI

• Although a considerable improvement in knowledge about small mammal fauna in Slovenia has been noted over the past 30 years, the group is still understudied.

  Species diversity and composition of small mammal communities in Goteniška gora (S Slovenia) · 2013 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Wildlife Ecology and Conservation

• Is Wildlife Going to the Dogs? Impacts of Feral and Free-roaming Dogs on Wildlife Populations · BioScience · 2011 · 313 citations
• Territoriality Among Human Foragers: Ecological Models and an Application to Four Bushman Groups [and Comments and Reply] · Current Anthropology · 1983 · 209 citations
• Rough Trade · BioScience · 2013 · 209 citations
• Designing wildlife-inclusive cities that support human-animal co-existence · Landscape and Urban Planning · 2020 · 146 citations
• Human activity influences wildlife populations and activity patterns: implications for spatial and temporal refuges · Ecosphere · 2021 · 140 citations
• The Return of the Giants: Ecological Effects of an Increasing Elephant Population · AMBIO · 2004 · 136 citations
• Animal movement affects interpretation of occupancy models from camera‐trap surveys of unmarked animals · Ecosphere · 2018 · 104 citations
• Mammal responses to global changes in human activity vary by trophic group and landscape · Nature Ecology & Evolution · 2024 · 100 citations
• Foraging ecology of black bears in urban environments: guidance for human‐bear conflict mitigation · Ecosphere · 2015 · 90 citations
• Hunting with Dogs in Nicaragua: An Optimal Foraging Approach · Current Anthropology · 2008 · 88 citations

Most recent work

• Interacting effects of human presence and landscape modification on birds and mammals · Science · 2026
• Density‐dependent habitat selection in plains bison · The Journal of Wildlife Management · 2026
• The Chornobyl Exclusion Zone as a wildlife refuge: restricted human access shaped mammal recolonization · Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences · 2026
• Monitoring data indicates some annual change in the mammal fauna at Nitmiluk National Park between 2005 and 2018 but a reduction in effort confounds any interpretation · bioRxiv · 2026
• The Relationships of Season, Climate, Habitat, and Sex Variables With Fecal Cortisol, Progesterone, and Testosterone Metabolite Concentrations in Roe Deer · Ecology and Evolution · 2026
• Navigating Urban Bear Management: An Overview of Recent Trends, Challenges, and Solutions in Hokkaido Brown Bear Management · Population Ecology · 2026
• Nocturnal neighbors: exploring residents' perceptions of urban wildlife related to animal traits identified by camera traps and literature · Wildlife Biology · 2026
• Occupancy and habitat associations of European hares and rabbits in mesic forests of the Northern Tablelands, New South Wales, Australia · Wildlife Research · 2026
• Hairy-nosed otter habitat selection and anthropogenic threats in Thailand’s critical strongholds · Pacific Conservation Biology · 2026
• Ecological, Demographic, and Physical Characteristics of Sierra Nevada Red Foxes in the Oregon Cascades · Northwest Science · 2026

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