Open research questions in Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports

What the literature leaves open

• 1. Since most students are active, healthy, and prefer team-based activities, the school should strengthen PE programs that emphasize cooperative and inclusive activities such as team sports, group dance, and collaborative fitness tasks. Teachers may also design differentiated PE activities to cater to varying activity preferences (individual, dual, and team-based) to sustain engagement of all learners. 2. To sustain high levels of motivation, the school should institutionalize student-centered PE practices, such as allowing learners to choose activities, set personal goals, and reflect on their performance. Teachers may also implement regular motivation-enhancing strategies such as goal-setting sheets, activity rotation, and student feedback mechanisms to strengthen autonomy, competence, relatedness, and enjoyment. 3. To further improve performance, the school should provide structured skill development programs and performance-based feedback systems. PE teachers may conduct regular formative assessments, skill demonstrations, and progressive drills, ensuring that students not only participate but also continuously improve in coordination, rhythm, accuracy, and expression. 4. Since personal profile factors do not strongly affect participation, the school should continue promoting inclusive PE instruction that accommodates all learners regardless of sex, activity preference, or physical condition. Teachers should ensure that no student is disadvantaged by personal characteristics, reinforcing equity through flexible and adaptive PE activities. 5. Given that motivation does not strongly translate into performance except enjoyment, the school should strengthen enjoyment-based learning strategies such as gamification, music integration, fun challenges, and creative movement tasks. At the same time, teachers should also balance enjoyment with skill-based instruction to ensure that motivation is translated into actual performance improvement. 6. The school should adopt and implement the proposed action plan as part of the PE program improvement initiative, integrating it into the School Improvement Plan (SIP) or PE program enhancement plan. Regular monitoring, teacher collaboration, and student feedback should be conducted to ensure that the plan effectively promotes a learner-centered, supportive, and enjoyable PE environment.

  Predictors of Participation in Personalized Physical Education Activities Among Junior High School Students in Relation to their Performance · 2026 · DOI

• Consequently, the findings are most applicable to this specific instructional context, and caution is warranted when generalizing them to students taking PE courses in other countries, PE majors or specialized sport training settings.

  University physical education teacher leadership behaviors and college students’ learning outcomes: the mediating roles of basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration · 2026 · DOI

• These dimensions have been shown to predict various social and cognitive outcomes in previous research, yet their collective influence on interpersonal competence has not been examined as an integrated construct. As a result, it remains uncertain whether the identified relationships persist over time or represent causal mechanisms.

  Examining the Relationships Between Game Use Motivation Factors, Interpersonal Competency, and the Moderating Effect of Self-Identity · 2026 · DOI

• It is important for several reasons: (a) the motor competence self-efficacy scale might serve as a valuable predictor of university students’ PA status, (b) there is a lack of research about motor competence self-efficacy of university students, and (c) limited research provided validity and reliability information regarding the scale (e.

  Development and Validation of a Motor Competence Self-Efficacy Scale for University Students · 2026 · DOI

• The present study focused only on university include research students. Future individuals from different age groups, educational levels, or occupational backgrounds to develop a broader understanding of relationship between body image satisfaction and classroom participation anxiety. Demographic variables were included; certain related psychological factors such as self-esteem, social comparison, social influence were not media usage, and peer examined in the current study. Including these variables in future studies may provide a deeper understanding of factors associated with body image and anxiety. Therefore, causal relationships could not be established. Future researchers are encouraged to conduct longitudinal studies to examine how body image satisfaction and classroom participation anxiety may change over time during students’ academic years.

  THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BODY IMAGE SATISFACTION AND CLASSROOM PARTICIPATION ANXIETY AMONG UNIVERSITY STUDENTS · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies should examine the stability of effects at follow-up, test generalizability across different school contexts, and define shared protocols for IMU metrics and analytical reporting, in line with recent recommendations on sensor data analysis and IMU-based motion analysis (Wort et al.

  Self-Regulated Movement Education: Effects on Motivation, Fitness and Motor Engagement · 2026 · DOI

• Organizational Psychology, 94(2), 427–457. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12338 Sun, H., & Chen, A. (2010). An examination of sixth graders’self-determined motivation and learning in physical education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 29(3), 262– 277. https://doi.org/10.1123/jtpe.29.3.262 for Tagare, R. L., Jr., Orfrecio, M. E., Sumera, E. S., Mancera, M. A., Calixtro, M. A., Janito, C. R., Lopez, H. G. D., & Dagoc, P. P. (2025). Suggestions for a better tertiary physical education experience: Insights from students at a rural state university.

  “The ‘double sinawali’ of learning and striking the stick with purpose”: Exploring the relationship between individual interest and study engagement in the indigenous martial art of Arnis · 2026 · DOI

• The study’s findings should be interpreted with caution due to several limitations. Its cross-sectional design restricts the ability to establish causal relationships between individual interest and study engagement, while reliance on self-reported data may have introduced social desirability, recall bias and common method bias. To mitigate these risks, several procedural remedies were implemented, including voluntary participation, anonymous responses and the absence of evaluative or performance-related consequences, which help reduce evaluation apprehension. In addition, the study employed theoretically distinct constructs measured using validated instruments with different scale formats, which further minimizes method-related inflation. Moreover, the sample, drawn from a single higher education institution, limits the generalizability of results to other universities with different curricular structures, cultural contexts or instructional approaches. The focus on Arnis as a culturally rooted physical education activity may also yield insights that are not directly transferable to non-indigenous sports settings.

  “The ‘double sinawali’ of learning and striking the stick with purpose”: Exploring the relationship between individual interest and study engagement in the indigenous martial art of Arnis · 2026 · DOI

• This study is not without its limitations. The small sample size is largely the result of post-pandemic realities, which affected our ca- pacity to recruit participants: pre-service teachers were, in fact, tired of being asked to participate in Zoom meetings. Furthermore, due to the small sample size, conclusions drawn from the quantitative data were limited. Nevertheless, the mixed-methods procedure employed allowed us to use qualitative data to further our understanding of the quantitative data, thereby helping to overcome this limitation. Finally, all participants were from the same university and were in- troduced to the subject earlier in their program. Results may there- fore have differed for pre-service PE teachers from other universities 105 Girard et al. following another curriculum. Future studies using a larger sample from different universities would consequently be necessary to gen- eralize our conclusions.

  Supporting Pre-service Teachers to Motivate Students in Physical Education: A Pilot Study · 2026 · DOI

• Several limitations of study warrant acknowledgment. First, the sample was recruited via convenience sampling from only five universities across four provinces in China, which constrains the generalizability of the findings to the present the broader population of Chinese university students. Future research would benefit from adopting stratified random sampling or expanding geographic coverage to enhance representativeness. Second, the assessment of helicopter parenting did not differentiate between paternal and maternal influences, instead treating the construct as an overall parenting dimension. Given prior evidence suggesting that maternal helicopter parenting may exert less negative impact than paternal practices (Love et al., 2020), future studies should examine the distinct contributions of father-specific and mother-specific helicopter parenting to depressive symptoms. Third, all measures relied on self-report instruments, which may introduce reporting biases–particularly for exercise behavior, where subjective recall of frequency, duration, and intensity is prone to inaccuracy. Subsequent investigations could employ objective assessment tools, such as accelerometers or heart rate monitors, to obtain more precise physical activity data. Fourth, although this study identified exercise behavior and physical self-esteem as significant mediators, other psychological and physiological variables–including self-efficacy, self-awareness, and objective physical health indicators–may also function as underlying mechanisms linking helicopter parenting to depressive symptoms and merit further exploration. Fifth, although Harman’s single-factor test did not indicate substantial common-method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003), all variables were assessed via self-report. Therefore, common-method variance and reporting bias cannot be fully ruled out. Future studies may benefit from incorporating multi-informant reports or objective measures, particularly for exercise behavior. Because depressive symptoms were assessed only at Time 3 and baseline depressive symptoms were not controlled, longitudinal the present findings should be interpreted as associations rather than evidence that helicopter parenting predicts changes in depressive symptoms over time. Future studies should include depressive symptoms at baseline and test cross-lagged or latent growth models to clarify directionality more rigorously. Moreover, there may be a bidirectional relationship between helicopter parenting and adolescent depressive symptoms: depressive symptoms may lead to overcontrolling parenting, while helicopter parenting may exacerbate depressive symptoms by undermining autonomy. Since the current study did not measure baseline depressive symptoms or examine reciprocal paths, the direction of causality cannot be determined. Therefore, future research should adopt multi-time-point longitudinal designs (e.g., cross-lagged or growth models) to clarify directionality and rule out confounding variables such as temperament and family climate.

  The longitudinal relationship between helicopter parenting and depressive symptoms among university students: the serial mediating roles of exercise behavior and physical self-esteem · 2026 · DOI

• This study is limited by its relatively small sample size and lack of additional contextual variables such as so- cio-economic background, family support, financial incentives, or coaching quality. These factors likely play a significant role in shaping motivation and mer- it further investigation. Future studies should adopt a more holistic approach, integrating both psycholog- ical and environmental factors to better understand what sustains athlete engagement across cultures. concluSionS This study validated the SMS for Indian athletes and compared the motivation of judokas from India, Po- land, and Brazil. This study demonstrated that while core motivational components in judo, particularly intrinsic motivation, introjected regulation, and identified regulation in extrinsic motivation, are largely consistent across cultures, differences emerge in externally regulated motivation and amotivation, reflecting broader sociocultural and structural influ- ences. The standardized philosophy and pedagogy of judo appear to foster shared intrinsic values among athletes regardless of national context, whereas ex- ternal pressures, support systems, and career struc- tures shape less self-determined forms of motivation. Importantly, career-related factors revealed distinct motivational patterns: career length was associated with identified motivation in Indian judokas and with intrinsic motivation (to experience stimulation) in Polish judokas, whereas career quality showed asso- ciations with both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation across all groups. Overall, the findings emphasize the need for culturally sensitive athlete support systems that promote autonomy, enjoyment, and long-term motivation in judo.

  Motivation in combat sports: a cross-cultural study on judokas from Brazil, India, and Poland · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies should investigate the impact of different age groups and longer-term physical activity programs to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of this relationship. In addition to research implications, the present findings offer several practical recommendations for teachers and school practitioners. Teachers are encouraged to incorporate short, structured physical activity breaks into the school day. Even brief interventions appear to produce modest but positive effects on achievement-oriented motivation. Such activities may include aerobic exercises, movement-based games, or motor skill– focused tasks integrated into classroom routines. Given the significant improvement observed in the Achievement sub- dimension, teachers should prioritize activities that emphasize goal setting, personal progress, and skill mastery rather than 6 Kargı et al. Journal of ROL Sport Sciences 8 (2026) 2207 focusing exclusively on competition. Providing constructive feedback and acknowledging individual improvement may strengthen students’ intrinsic motivation and reinforce achievement-oriented behaviors. Since gender differences were observed in the competition sub-dimension, teachers should remain attentive to varying motivational orientations among boys and girls. Implementing a balanced structure that includes both cooperative and competitive formats may help address diverse motivational preferences and promote inclusive participation. Differences across grade levels further highlight the importance of developmentally appropriate programming. Older students may respond more positively to achievement-focused and performance-oriented tasks, whereas younger students may benefit more from play- based, exploratory movement experiences that foster enjoyment and engagement. Finally, given that short-term interventions demonstrated limited effects in certain motivational domains, teachers and school administrators are encouraged to implement sustained and systematically structured physical activity programs. Long-term integration of physical activity within the school curriculum may be necessary to produce broader and more stable improvements in motivation and social development.

  Music-supported aerobic exercise and sports participation motivation: An application based on self-determination theory in primary school children · 2026 · DOI

• While the study identifies that punishment mechanisms have the weakest negative effect on intrinsic motivation (β = −.227), it does not investigate the dose-response relationship or identify optimal punishment intensity thresholds that minimize motivation loss. Longitudinal designs measuring motivation changes following different punishment intensities are needed.

  Reinforcement Mechanisms and Work Motivation Among University Lecturers in Anhui Province · 2026 · DOI

• The paper does not examine potential moderating variables (such as lecturer tenure, age, disciplinary field, or institutional type) that might condition the strength of relationships between reinforcement mechanisms and motivation levels. Subgroup analyses stratified by these demographic and institutional characteristics are absent.

  Reinforcement Mechanisms and Work Motivation Among University Lecturers in Anhui Province · 2026 · DOI

• The research is geographically limited to university lecturers in Anhui Province with a sample of 348 participants (n=348). The generalizability of these reinforcement mechanism effects to lecturers in other Chinese provinces or international educational contexts remains unexamined, requiring cross-regional comparative studies.

  Reinforcement Mechanisms and Work Motivation Among University Lecturers in Anhui Province · 2026 · DOI

• The study demonstrates differential effects of reinforcement mechanisms on intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation (β values ranging from .124 to .524 for different mechanisms), but does not investigate why negative reinforcement has the strongest effect on extrinsic motivation (β = .362) while positive reinforcement dominates for intrinsic motivation (β = .524). Comparative mechanism analysis across these motivation types is needed.

  Reinforcement Mechanisms and Work Motivation Among University Lecturers in Anhui Province · 2026 · DOI

• The regression model for extrinsic motivation explains only 19.2% of variance (R² = .192), substantially lower than the intrinsic motivation model. The paper explicitly notes that 'motivation may be regulate by early-level factors in addition to reinforcement mechanisms' but does not specify what these other factors are or how they should be measured in the lecturer population.

  Reinforcement Mechanisms and Work Motivation Among University Lecturers in Anhui Province · 2026 · DOI

• The regression model explaining intrinsic motivation among university lecturers accounts for only 52.2% of variance (R² = .522), leaving 47.8% unexplained. Future research should identify and measure additional motivational factors beyond the three reinforcement mechanisms (positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment) that influence lecturer intrinsic motivation in the Anhui Province context.

  Reinforcement Mechanisms and Work Motivation Among University Lecturers in Anhui Province · 2026 · DOI

• The study took place in an undergraduate mathematics course designed for non-STEM majors, with a sample of 109 participants. The majority of participants were female, and there was limited variability in age.

  Examining the role of personality traits and perceived need satisfaction in gamified learning · 2026 · DOI

• While the implementation of microcredentials is a relatively novel way in the secondary education context, some limited studies indicated that awarding them provides excellent opportunities to celebrate learning progress and create personalized educational experiences in the traditional classroom with the potential to positively influence self-efficacy and motivation to learn.

  Microcredentials as Effective Student Motivators to Enhance Academic Engagement and Progress of High School Students: A Scoping Review · 2025 · DOI

• <span lang="EN-US">While the challenges student-athletes face in balancing academics and sports have garnered increasing attention, few studies have explored how factors like hope and grit contribute to this balance and enhance motivation.

  Hope and grit: the driving forces behind student-athletes’ motivation in sports and academics · 2025 · DOI

• In reviewing how students, especially those from from historically under-researched backgrounds, define belonging, I demonstrate both the divergence of their definitions from the traditional psychological focus on social connections alone, and the convergence of their definitions with these four forms of person–environment fit.

  Centering Social Fit, Self-Concept Fit, Goal Fit, and Resource Fit as Core Elements of Students’ Experiences of Belonging at School · 2025 · DOI

• It reveals that material, traditional and autonomy-oriented values influence health perceptions and certain lifestyle choices The relevance and novelty of our study is that the new generation of students who have already participated in the new implementation process in physical education and who have already been involved in the public education system has not yet been studied from this point of view.

  The Role of Well-Being as a Value in Students’ Health-Conscious Lifestyles in the Context of the Role of Daily Physical Education · 2025 · DOI

• Research links extracurricular activity (ECA) participation to developmental outcomes, yet little is known about social processes that occur within ECAs.

  Examining the Dynamic Interplay of Motivation and Friendships within a Collegiate Extracurricular Activity in the U.S.: The Case of Marching Band · 2022 · DOI

• Research on the impact of the Sport Education model (SEM) in motivational terms is prolific and consistent; however, studies that jointly address the effects of the SEM on adolescents’ motivational, emotional, and well-being dimensions are scarce.

  Effects of the Sport Education model on adolescents’ motivational, emotional, and well-being dimensions during a school year · 2021 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Motivation and Self-Concept in Sports

• Intrinsic motivation and extrinsic incentives jointly predict performance: A 40-year meta-analysis. · Psychological Bulletin · 2014 · 1,377 citations
• Student Motivation and Associated Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis From Self-Determination Theory · Perspectives on Psychological Science · 2021 · 722 citations
• A test of self‐determination theory in school physical education · British Journal of Educational Psychology · 2005 · 626 citations
• Adventure Education and Outward Bound: Out-of-Class Experiences That Make a Lasting Difference · Review of Educational Research · 1997 · 569 citations
• Psychological Need Thwarting in the Sport Context: Assessing the Darker Side of Athletic Experience · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · 2011 · 538 citations
• Autonomy-supportive teaching: Its malleability, benefits, and potential to improve educational practice · Educational Psychologist · 2021 · 507 citations
• Teacher well-being: A systematic review of the research literature from the year 2000–2019 · Educational Research Review · 2021 · 505 citations
• A self-determination theory (SDT) design approach for inclusive and diverse artificial intelligence (AI) education · Computers & Education · 2022 · 385 citations
• Applying Self-Determination Theory to Education: Regulations Types, Psychological Needs, and Autonomy Supporting Behaviors · Canadian Journal of School Psychology · 2021 · 320 citations
• Pathways to Student Motivation: A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents of Autonomous and Controlled Motivations · Review of Educational Research · 2021 · 300 citations

Most recent work

• “The ‘double sinawali’ of learning and striking the stick with purpose”: Exploring the relationship between individual interest and study engagement in the indigenous martial art of Arnis · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · 2026
• Development and psychometric evaluation of the E-sports Attitude Scale · International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education · 2026
• Supporting Pre-service Teachers to Motivate Students in Physical Education: A Pilot Study · The Physical Educator · 2026
• The motivational dimension of self-regulated learning and life satisfaction in secondary school students: effects of an adventure education programme · Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning · 2026
• Relationships between (de-)motivating teaching approaches with students’ need-based experiences and affective outcomes in physical education: a circumplex approach · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · 2026
• Meaningful physical education versus autonomy support: effects on self-determined motivation and affectivity during a fitness unit · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · 2026
• Who influences whom: do students' perceptions of physical education teacher's (de)motivating styles shape student motivation, vice versa, or both? · Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy · 2026
• Research on the Pathway for Enhancing the Learning Efficacy of Teenagers in Sports Based on Educational Psychology · Lecture Notes in Education Psychology and Public Media · 2026
• Advancing Physics Education in Junior Secondary Classes: A Self-Determination Theory Analysis of Stakeholder Perspectives in Jaffna District, Sri Lanka · Manatri: Journal of Multi-Disciplinary Research · 2026
• Examining the role of personality traits and perceived need satisfaction in gamified learning · Knowledge Management & E-Learning An International Journal · 2026

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