Open research questions in Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

What the literature leaves open

• These exploratory findings suggest that the left superior frontal gyrus warrants further investigation as a candidate biomarker for NF interventions aimed at mitigating choking under pressure.

  An Exploratory Study of Prefrontal Cortex Activation Related to Golf Putting Performance Under Psychological Pressure: A Functional Near-infrared Spectroscopy Approach · 2026 · DOI

• However, it remains unclear whether this "Physics Network" (PN) constitutes a distinct and domain-specific system, or whether instead it overlaps with the nearby domain-general multiple demand (MD) network.

  The Physics Network is Distinct from the Multiple Demand System in the Human Brain · 2026 · DOI

• Human perception is continuously shaped by internal cognitive states, yet how motivation and working memory jointly influence perceptual sensitivity remains poorly understood.

  Distinct Computational and Temporal Mechanisms Underlie the Joint Effects of Motivation and Working Memory on Perceptual Sensitivity · 2026 · DOI

• This sparse coding regime embedded within widespread suppression resembles observations in electrophysiological studies of IL and orbitofrontal cortex during learned behaviour 25,41 and is consistent with theoretical frameworks proposing that predictive representations are sharpened through suppression of non- informative population activity 35,36.

  A Dual-Ensemble Model of Infralimbic Cortex Function in Behavioural Flexibility · 2026 · DOI

• However, most previous studies have focused on low-to-moderate load ranges (primarily 0-3-back), and it remains unclear how whole-brain activity patterns reconfigure across a broader range of WM demands, including conditions approaching capacity limits.

  Characterizing load-dependent changes in whole-brain activity patterns during an extended N-back task · 2026 · DOI

• Neurons in the PF respond to sensory cues and encode features of head position, but little is known about how the PF is engaged in vivo during learning.

  The parafascicular thalamus steers attention to facilitate learning · 2026 · DOI

• According to current theory, such WM gating processes are modulated by dopamine in the striatum, yet empirical evidence for this hypothesis remains sparse.

  Dopamine modulates striatal activity when controlling the output of working memory · 2026 · DOI

• However, group differences emerged specifically during rightward attention, where ASD participants showed a more uniform pattern of oscillatory modulation, warranting further investigation.

  Asymmetric neural dynamics of visuospatial attention in autism spectrum disorder · 2026 · DOI

• Introduction Spatial distraction can disrupt visual-spatial working memory (VSWM), but its stage-dependent effects on multichannel neural dynamics remain insufficiently characterized.

  A multichannel MEG time–frequency analysis framework for detecting stage -specific effects of spatial distraction in visual-spatial working memory · 2026 · DOI

• However, whether lower LA represents a core facet of abnormal decision-making in AUD, rather than a secondary consequence of defective executive functioning, remains debated.

  Neural correlates of altered loss aversion in alcohol use disorder: preliminary evidence of sex-related differences from 18F-FDG-PET imaging · 2026 · DOI

• Evidence suggests that the LPFC encodes the behavioral relevance of stimuli, distinguishing action targets from irrelevant objects; however, how this selectivity emerges over time and integrates within large-scale cortical dynamics underlying action preparation remains unclear.

  Behavioral Relevance Coding in Human Area 46 Precedes Selective Motor Activation to Action Targets · 2026 · DOI

• 281 4.1 Neural implementation 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 The recursive-MDP is situated at Marr’s algorithmic and computational-levels. While the framework can be used “merely” to describe the researcher’s abstraction of internal, cognitive processes, its full potential is as a generative account of how the brain’s control architecture is organized. Such a theory commits to neural implementation, positing generic meta-states and meta-actions with shared neural substrates across base-algorithms, alongside more specific meta-states and meta-actions implementations that enable flexible meta-control. 12 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 Implementationally, we have hinted that meta-controllers employ similar machinery to the base-controller (which is richly embedded in cortico-striatal circuits), but with privileged meta-states and meta-actions. Compared with externally-focused perception, little is known about the meta-sensors and the meta-perceptual mechanisms that create the internal-facing meta-state-space via meta-cognition over the base-level. An exception is the neural ascriptions of conflicts and errors to the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (Brown 2017; Miller and Cohen 2001; Shenhav et al. 2013, 2016; but see Cipolotti et al. 2025; Fellows and Farah 2005), realizing meta-perceptual monitoring (Botvinick et al., 2004; Dignath et al., 2020; Shenhav et al., 2013). Equally regions of human PFC compute confidence (Fleming, 2024; Fleming et al., 2014; Seow et al., 2021; Shekhar and Rahnev, 2018), with ventromedial PFC and ventral striatum representing global self-beliefs, such as task performance. The regional realization of generic and specific meta-states is also investigated (Lund et al., 2025; Seow et al., 2021). A rather different, but promising, domain in which this is being studied is bodybrain cybernetics (Stephan et al., 2016). In this case, the base controller regulates physiological processes in the body to maintain homeostasis; interoception helps construct the meta-states that monitor the body, and the meta-action includes the induction of fatigue to allow recuperation. Failures of meta-control are suggested as leading to psychiatric symptoms (Stephan et al., 2016). More generally, a better understanding of the latent base-algorithms—such as the brain’s planning algorithms—will be important to elucidate generic and specific aspects of metaperception. Meta-agents face the (meta-)attention and information compression problems of multimodal integration of information from the base-algorithm, behavior and envi- In particular, while “the brain could have full access ronmental cues (Fleming, 2024).

  M^3: Meta-cognition and Meta-control with Markov Decision Processes · 2026 · DOI

• Beyond these theoretical considerations, several method- ological limitations should be acknowledged. First, our primary dependent measure reflects effort-related choice in task selection (VSR), which we used to infer willingness to invest cognitive control. We did not directly measure effort mobilization during ongoing performance using physiologi- cal indices such as cardiac pre-ejection period or systolic blood pressure (Gendolla et al., 2025; Richter et al., 2016; Szwed et al., 2021). At the same time, this focus on valu- ation and choice was central to our research question, and reduced willingness to select control-demanding options is itself a meaningful outcome. Importantly, objectively exerted effort and subjectively experienced effort are con- ceptually distinct and can dissociate empirically (Bermudez & Massin, 2023; Bijleveld, 2018; Halperin & Vigotsky, 2024). Accordingly, our findings are most directly infor- mative about how uncontrollability shifts valuation and selection of control-demanding actions rather than provid- ing a direct test of physiological effort mobilization. Future experiments could combine choice-based paradigms such as VTS with physiological indices to test whether uncontrolla- bility affects not only decisions but also mobilization during performance (Richter et al., 2016; Gendolla, 2025). Second, participants were recruited online. Although we implemented engagement checks and performance-based incentives, we cannot exclude variability in attention and task engagement. Laboratory replications could help stan- dardize testing conditions and clarify the robustness of the effects. Furthermore, our question raises a broader issue about how motivation can be supported under low control, but in our experiment, we focused on external rewards, which may not be the only or the most effective strategy. Thus, a promising future direction concerns approaches to offset- ting the effects of low control beyond external incentives. It would be valuable to explore more intrinsic ways of mitigat- ing these effects. For instance, teaching individuals to seek effort by pairing it with something valuable and making it a secondary reinforcer, as suggested by the learned indus- triousness account (Eisenberger, 1992; Clay et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2024), or by increasing their perceived efficacy in more effortful tasks (Cameron et al., 2019), might help counteract the negative consequences of control deprivation without relying on external incentives. Although our experiments cannot rule out all alterna- tive explanations, they provide preliminary evidence that experimentally induced low control can lead to reduced willingness to engage in effort-related choices. Our find- ings may therefore contribute not only to the understand- ing of cognitive aftereffects of low control in experimental settings but also inspire research on the role of perceived uncontrollability in real-life contexts and interventions aimed at mitigating its effects. Burnout, unemployment, and underperformance at school or work are large-scale social issues that may be bidirectionally linked to experiences of uncontrollability (Boddez et al., 2022; Bukowski & Kofta, 2017; Rydzewska et al., 2017; Soral et al., 2024), highlight- ing the need for effective interventions. Understanding how to counteract the effects of helplessness at the experimen- tal level may thus provide valuable insights for designing 1 3Motivation and Emotion training targeting these phenomena also in various applied contexts.

  The mental price of losing control: Rewards and willingness to invest mental effort under conditions of uncontrollability · 2026 · DOI

• We assumed that 495 time-constrained similarity judgments should rely on more fundamental dimensions and reflect a simplified feature space, limited to the most salient features.

  Micro-valence is reflected in similarity judgments even under time pressure · 2026 · DOI

• A few methodological limitations temper the conclusions drawn here. Despite recent growth in sample sizes, many studies remain small and longitudinal analyses underpowered – e.g., Zhao et al. (2022) [n = 27 (T1), n = 26 (T2)] and Short et al. (2019) [n = 27]. Furthermore, Bulgarelli et al.’s (2025, Preprint) FC–CF associations did not survive correction for multiple comparisons, and Fiske et al.’s (2025b) study on the neural correlates of IC had too small a sample with useable longitudinal data at all three age points to look at individual-level change over time. A related challenge is task heterogeneity. For example, CF is assessed using different methods, such as rs-fMRI during sleep (Yin et al., 2020) and the DCCS (in relation to FC; Bulgarelli et al., 2025, Preprint). This diversity, while valuable, complicates understanding: one method suggests that core regions seen in adult CF are already in place by age 2, while the other finds contrasting patterns of early FC development across cortical interest with highly age-dependent associations to regions of preschool CF. Consequently, it is difficult to determine whether discrepancies across studies reflect differences in CF’s neural development at various stages or differences in measurement and tasks. Similarly, most studies focus on a single component of EF, and sometimes even more specific subconstructs (e.g., VWM; Delgado Reyes et al., 2020; Wijeakumar et al., 2019). The challenging and time-consuming nature of collecting neuroimaging data in infants and toddlers no doubt contributes to this. However, the consequence is that it is difficult to know where the neural substrates and developmental change overlap and diverge across EF domains. Finally, factors such as SES and maternal education are meaningful covariates – demonstrated to predict neural activation during early WM development (Wijeakumar et al., 2019) – yet are inconsistently reported and controlled for across studies. For example (see ‘Prefrontal Cortex Maturation’ above), Short et al. (2019) included maternal education as a covariate in their analyses but did not account for SES. Similarly, Zhao et al. (2022) reported both SES and maternal education levels in their demographics section but did not control for them. This limits conclusions about neural EF development independent of environmental factors or clear indications of how much such factors contribute to the results.

  Neural substrates of executive function development in children under three: a mini-review of recent advances · 2026 · DOI

• Recent findings do, however, also provide avenues for future research. As mentioned in the Limitations section, most studies investigate a single EF domain (often using a single neuroimaging modality).

  Neural substrates of executive function development in children under three: a mini-review of recent advances · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies should examine whether delta ITPC enhancement in aging corresponds to functional improvements or emerges as a by-product of broader age-related neural changes. Therefore, it remains unclear whether stronger phase alignment actually supports performance or reflects a general age-related shift in neural synchronisation.

  Predicting time across age: comparing performance and neural dynamics of younger and older adults in a temporal prediction task · 2026 · DOI

• While our findings suggest a neural evidence accumulation mechanism during RL, alternative interpretations warrant consideration.20 For instance, CPP signals might partly reflect action monitoring50 or decision confidence51 rather than pure accumulation per se. However, we emphasize that the identified CPP signal closely mirrors neural accumulation dynamics extensively validated in perceptual decision-making studies, where careful controls and targeted manipulations have systematically addressed and ruled out several alternative explanations.16,18,29,33 Thus, although we cannot exclude contributions from other cognitive processes, the strong similarity in the temporal dynamics, topographical distribution, and decision-related modulation of the CPP identified here with studies on perceptual decision-making lends support to our interpretation that the CPP reflects evidence accumulation processes during RL. Some methodological considerations should be acknowledged. First, the current design did not include stimulus-onset jitter, potentially resulting in overlapping neural responses to stimulus presentation and evidence accumulation, complicating clear isolation of decision-related processes. Future studies employing jittered stimulus presentations could enhance the temporal specificity of CPP effects. Second, the model was suboptimal at capturing the evolution of RTs for incorrect responses.

  Neural decision dynamics underlying reinforcement learning and working memory · 2026 · DOI

• The integration mechanism between cognitive and affective ToM network subcomponents is inferred from increased BOLD signal and inter-regional coupling during RPS, but the temporal dynamics of this integration (i.e., whether coupling precedes, follows, or co-occurs with regional activation) have not been characterized. High-temporal-resolution neuroimaging (e.g., simultaneous fMRI-EEG) during RPS and comparison tasks is needed to establish the sequence of ToM subcomponent engagement.

  Task-dependent increases and decreases of BOLD signal in theory of mind brain regions during strategic social interaction · 2026 · DOI

• The study contrasts RPS-induced BOLD increases in the affective ToM network (bilateral IFG) with previous RMET-related suppression below baseline, suggesting differential task recruitment of cognitive versus affective mentalizing. However, the paper does not directly test whether the same brain regions show graded BOLD responses (increases vs. decreases vs. no change) across a parametrically-varied continuum of task demands (e.g., increasing strategic unpredictability).

  Task-dependent increases and decreases of BOLD signal in theory of mind brain regions during strategic social interaction · 2026 · DOI

• The findings reveal increased functional coupling between bilateral TPJ-precuneus and left IFG, and between mPFC-right TPJ and right IFG during RPS, but the paper does not specify how these inter-region connectivity patterns vary as a function of opponent behavior (e.g., opponent skill level, predictability, reciprocal strategy). Cross-task comparisons examining connectivity dynamics across RPS variants with different strategic complexity are required.

  Task-dependent increases and decreases of BOLD signal in theory of mind brain regions during strategic social interaction · 2026 · DOI

• The study demonstrates task-dependent directional BOLD responses in ToM regions (mPFC, TPJ, precuneus) during RPS compared to RMET, but lacks systematic investigation of the mechanistic transition between affective ToM suppression (observed in RMET baseline shifts) and cognitive ToM activation during strategic interaction tasks. Connectivity analyses specifically tracking how these regions flexibly shift between affective and cognitive processing modes across different task demands are needed.

  Task-dependent increases and decreases of BOLD signal in theory of mind brain regions during strategic social interaction · 2026 · DOI

• The discrepancy between the present study (which found no emotional intensity effects in younger adults) and Braunwarth and Ferdinand (2025) (which did report such effects) remains unexplained beyond stimulus contrast differences. Future research should directly compare feedback conditions using identical emotional stimuli but varying levels of socio-emotional explicitness (e.g., intact faces versus scrambled faces) to systematically test whether stimulus contrast moderates age differences in socio-emotional feedback processing.

  Age differences in socio-emotional feedback processing during learning: an ERP study · 2026 · DOI

• Potential ceiling effects in younger adults may have obscured observable benefits of socio-emotional feedback on working memory updating in this age group. Future research should employ more challenging learning tasks or use performance-matched difficulty levels across age groups to prevent ceiling effects and enable detection of age-comparable socio-emotional feedback processing mechanisms.

  Age differences in socio-emotional feedback processing during learning: an ERP study · 2026 · DOI

• The study cannot determine whether the enhanced working memory updating in older adults results from the emotional expression of faces, the social nature of facial stimuli themselves, or the communicative meaning of emotional expressions. Future research should develop feedback stimuli that isolate these three components—such as scrambled emotional faces, non-social emotional signals, and emotionally neutral faces with communicative cues—to disambiguate the mechanisms driving socio-emotional feedback benefits.

  Age differences in socio-emotional feedback processing during learning: an ERP study · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Neural and Behavioral Psychology Studies

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• A model for stimulus generalization in Pavlovian conditioning. · Psychological Review · 1987 · 713 citations
• Development of inhibitory control across the life span. · Developmental Psychology · 1999 · 635 citations
• Suppression of Regional Cerebral Blood during Emotional versus Higher Cognitive Implications for Interactions between Emotion and Cognition · Cognition & Emotion · 1998 · 529 citations
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• Costly Information Acquisition: Experimental Analysis of a Boundedly Rational Model · American Economic Review · 2006 · 425 citations
• Significance?... Significance! Empirical, methodological, and theoretical connections between the late positive potential and P300 as neural responses to stimulus significance: An integrative review · Psychophysiology · 2020 · 376 citations
• Incubation and the Persistence of Fixation in Problem Solving · The American Journal of Psychology · 1991 · 323 citations

Most recent work

• Complementary contributions of dorsal and ventral striatum to cost-benefit vigor adaptations · bioRxiv · 2026
• A single evidence accumulation process informs perceptual choices and subsequent confidence reports · bioRxiv · 2026
• Multi-area Decision Dynamics Across Human Cortex Shape Confidence · bioRxiv · 2026
• The effects of discriminative stimuli on combined relapse: A preliminary human‐operant investigation · Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior · 2026
• What can a half-million saccades tell us about distractor suppression? · Cognition · 2026
• Spatial Attention in the Moving Brain: Dissociable Roles of Neural Alpha Oscillations and Head Rotation · bioRxiv · 2026
• Neural substrates of executive function development in children under three: a mini-review of recent advances · Frontiers in Developmental Psychology · 2026
• Alpha and theta oscillations differentiate escalating risk levels during reward anticipation in sequential decision making · bioRxiv · 2026
• Brain network reconfiguration during prediction error processing · Network Neuroscience · 2026
• Electrophysiological Correlates of Reward Processing in the Human Ventral Tegmental Area · bioRxiv · 2026

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