Open research questions in Prosthetics and Rehabilitation Robotics

What the literature leaves open

• small sample size of 24 participants, - limited to a 5-day protocol, - no long-term follow-up, - potential differences in fatigue and perceived magnitude of perturbation between groups

  Repetitive exoskeleton use induces persistent coordination changes in wearers · 2026 · DOI

• investigating the long-term effects of exoskeleton use, - examining the effects of different force field magnitudes and types, - studying the impact of exoskeleton use on musculoskeletal risks

  Repetitive exoskeleton use induces persistent coordination changes in wearers · 2026 · DOI

• The study used a simulation-based approach, - The sample size was limited to 18 participants per study, - The study only evaluated two back-support exoskeletons and two arm-support exoskeletons, - Field evaluation is recommended to confirm the findings

  Passive back- and arm-support exoskeletons have effects on physical demands and user perceptions in simulated manual mining tasks that are generally beneficial but are both device- and task-specific · 2026 · DOI

• Field evaluation of back-support exoskeletons and arm-support exoskeletons in real-world mining settings, - Investigation of the long-term effects of using these devices, - Comparison of different device designs and their effects on physical demands and user perceptions

  Passive back- and arm-support exoskeletons have effects on physical demands and user perceptions in simulated manual mining tasks that are generally beneficial but are both device- and task-specific · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies the challenge of evaluating postural instability mechanisms in individuals with generalized joint hypermobility. The study notes the challenge of integrating linear and nonlinear metrics to evaluate postural control and compensatory strategies. The study acknowledges the challenge of interpreting findings from scale-specific MSE comparisons and correlation analyses due to limited statistical power.

  Condition-specific mediolateral sway and task-dependent postural complexity in individuals with generalized joint hypermobility · 2026 · DOI

• The sample size calculation was designed to detect the primary Group × Task interaction for linear COP outcomes and does not account for the higher dimensionality of the MSE analysis, - Findings from scale-specific MSE comparisons and correlation analyses should therefore be interpreted with the possibility of limited statistical power in mind

  Condition-specific mediolateral sway and task-dependent postural complexity in individuals with generalized joint hypermobility · 2026 · DOI

• The available facilities did not meet the minimum length requirement for multi-jet fusion (MJF) materials. The material's glass transition temperature needed to be above 104 °C to tolerate fabrication of the carbon fiber layup. The Young's modulus and tensile strength needed to be comparable to the Nyglass material currently used in traditional carbon fiber layup fabrication techniques.

  Quick fabrication of 3D-printed prosthetic sockets with embedded sensors to track limb motion · 2026 · DOI

• Clinical studies to determine which quantitative limb motion metrics help prosthetists meaningfully enhance their patient care. Investigation of the use of data from limb-socket interface sensors to help decide patients' socket design. Research on the long-term effects of using investigational sockets.

  Quick fabrication of 3D-printed prosthetic sockets with embedded sensors to track limb motion · 2026 · DOI

• However, structured methodological approaches to identify clinically relevant applications for versatile robotic platforms before clinical implementation are still lacking.

  Bridging stakeholder needs and technological capabilities to identify humanoid robot applications in rehabilitation: a case study in an ALS multidisciplinary care unit · 2026 · DOI

• While most research focuses on major LEA, minor LEA remain understudied despite their rising incidence.

  Postural control imbalance in individuals with a minor lower extremity amputation: a scoping review protocol. · 2025 · DOI

• However, performing this treatment can be challenging due to patients' difficulty in maintaining the training maneuvers and the lack of standardization in these maneuvers.

  Mechanism design and human-machine coupling analysis for a lumbar rehabilitation robot · 2025 · DOI

• However, they also alter gait kinematics and kinetics, and it is not well understood whether such alterations are detrimental or beneficial to the human body.

  Effects of an active ankle exoskeleton on the walking biomechanics of healthy men · 2025 · DOI

• However, the mechanisms underlying users' adaptation of muscle recruitment and coordination patterns in response to external robotic assistance remain poorly understood.

  Characterization of muscle synergy similarity and adaptation in hip exoskeleton-assisted locomotion · 2025 · DOI

• Although AM of soft materials for biomedical uses is well-explored, its application in making personalized prosthetic liners remains under-researched.

  A comprehensive study on thermoplastic elastomers for additive manufacturing of leg prosthesis · 2025 · DOI

• The efficacy of home and community exoskeletal use has not been studied in a randomized clinical trial (RCT).

  Exoskeletal-Assisted Walking in Veterans With Paralysis · 2024 · DOI

• Future research may focus on the use of multimodal sensing interactions, flexible control strategies, and generalized rehabilitation assessment mechanism.

  The Human–Machine Interaction Methods and Strategies for Upper and Lower Extremity Rehabilitation Robots: A Review · 2024 · DOI

• While some studies have focused on traumatic amputees in veterans, few studies have focused on traumatic amputees within the general population.

  Risk of Heart Disease in Patients With Amputation: A Nationwide Cohort Study in South Korea · 2024 · DOI

• Severe challenges in performing daily activities such as walking, standing, or maintaining balance. Limited mobility and independence for individuals with lower limb paralysis.

  Robotic Suit for Paralyzed Person · 2026 · DOI

• AI-based gait prediction. EMG-based muscle control. Lightweight materials for better comfort. Advanced balance control algorithms.

  Robotic Suit for Paralyzed Person · 2026 · DOI

• The challenges in orthopedic care include the need for a more comprehensive model of care that prioritizes functional recovery and patient-centered outcomes. The challenges also include the need for a better understanding of the interaction between biomechanics, biology, and innovation in orthopedic care.

  Integrative Orthopedic Care: Bridging Biomechanics, Regenerative Biology, and Technological Innovation in Modern Musculoskeletal Medicine · 2026 · DOI

• The gap in current orthopedic care is the lack of a unified framework that integrates biomechanical, biological, and technological principles. The gap is recognized as the need for a more comprehensive model of care that prioritizes functional recovery and patient-centered outcomes.

  Integrative Orthopedic Care: Bridging Biomechanics, Regenerative Biology, and Technological Innovation in Modern Musculoskeletal Medicine · 2026 · DOI

• The limitations of existing control strategies for PAMs in ankle exoskeletons. The need for a novel control strategy to overcome the severe nonlinearities and hysteresis of PAMs.

  Adaptive sliding mode control of a pneumatic ankle exoskeleton for gait assistance · 2026 · DOI

• The study investigates the effect of different foot prosthesis positions on the gait kinematics of a person with a transtibial amputation. It aims to understand how much prosthetic alignment affects joint flexion ranges and increase the risk of secondary complications if the prosthesis is incorrectly aligned.

  The case study of prosthetic foot alignment on amputee gait kinematics using IMU-based motion capture system · 2026 · DOI

• The study has a limited sample size of 111 participants. The study has a completion rate of 55%. The study does not provide a comprehensive analysis of the participants' responses.

  Additive Manufacturing in Upper-Limb Prosthetics: A Survey of Stakeholders’ Profiles and Expertise · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of documented use cases and guidelines for additive manufacturing in upper-limb prosthetics. The lack of computer-aided design skills among volunteers and certified prosthetists. The lack of training for fitting prostheses.

  Additive Manufacturing in Upper-Limb Prosthetics: A Survey of Stakeholders’ Profiles and Expertise · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Prosthetics and Rehabilitation Robotics

• Reach and grasp by people with tetraplegia using a neurally controlled robotic arm · Nature · 2012 · 2,385 citations
• Exoskeletons for industrial application and their potential effects on physical work load · Ergonomics · 2015 · 938 citations
• The design of manual handling tasks: revised tables of maximum acceptable weights and forces · Ergonomics · 1991 · 651 citations
• The Role of Proprioception in the Management and Rehabilitation of Athletic Injuries · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · 1997 · 552 citations
• Effects of industrial back-support exoskeletons on body loading and user experience: an updated systematic review · Ergonomics · 2020 · 254 citations
• Outcomes in lower limb amputation following trauma: A systematic review and meta-analysis · Injury · 2011 · 238 citations
• Effects of different loads and carrying systems on selected biomechanical parameters describing walking gait · Ergonomics · 1985 · 225 citations
• Evaluation of a passive exoskeleton for static upper limb activities · Applied Ergonomics · 2018 · 220 citations
• The safety of electrically assisted bicycles compared to classic bicycles · Accident Analysis & Prevention · 2014 · 189 citations
• Constraint-induced movement therapy: A new approach to treatment in physical rehabilitation. · Rehabilitation Psychology · 1998 · 188 citations

Most recent work

• Research on Control Strategy of Lower Limb Exoskeleton Robots: A Review · Sensors · 2026
• Investigating the effects of back-support exoskeletons on work posture: An automated AI-based NIOSH measurement using YOLO · Applied Ergonomics · 2026
• Rigid and soft back-support exoskeletons affect biomechanical and perceptual demands, but in different ways, during simulated shingle installation · Applied Ergonomics · 2026
• Passive exoskeletons in healthcare practice: Usability and acceptance in a clinical setting · Applied Ergonomics · 2026
• Impact of Psychosocial intervention on Quality of life in patients with post- traumatic limb amputation/s: a randomized controlled trial · Injury · 2026
• Between promise and practice: Ethical reflections and organizational dynamics of exoskeleton use in manual work · Journal of Safety Research · 2026
• Application of lower limb exoskeleton robots in elderly patients with ICU-acquired weakness: a prospective clinical study · BMC Geriatrics · 2026
• Embodied interaction control from human to artificial muscles · Interface Focus · 2026
• Spinal neuromotor rehabilitation using a portable isokinetic training robot · Nature · 2026
• “Stepping forward” wearable overground exoskeletons can improve gait and balance in people with cerebral palsy: a systematic review with meta-analysis · Disability and Rehabilitation · 2026

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