Open research questions in Second Language Acquisition and Learning

What the literature leaves open

• Despite extensive research, it remains unclear whether elevated resumption acceptance in L2 learners reflects a representational deficit or processing-based strategies, and no study has examined the role of working memory in this distinction for Saudi learners.

  Are Uninterpretable Features Unlearnable? Revisiting the Interpretability Hypothesis in Second Language English Acquisition · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should address these limitations by involving larger and more diverse participant groups, combining quantitative surveys with qualitative methods such as classroom observation, and implementing experimental or quasi-experimental designs to test the effectiveness of AI-integrated CBLP in practice. Additionally, teacher training and professional development should be investigated to ensure sustainable pedagogical innovation.

  Students’ attitudes, challenges, and needs in English reading comprehension: Foundations for AI-integrated corpus-based language pedagogy · 2026 · DOI

• The findings across the five clusters highlight the need for vocabulary instruction that systematically integrates lexical associations, multimodal input, and explicit contrastive analysis. Teachers should adopt instructional designs that connect pronunciation, morphology, semantics, and usage rather than treating vocabulary as isolated items. Technology should be used purposefully, mind-mapping tools, mobile apps, online tasks, YouTube-based pronunciation practice, and iRubrics are most effective when they scaffold cognitive processing and support self-regulated learning. Assessment practices should incorporate multi-component tasks that diagnose weaknesses and guide remedial instruction. Translation training must explicitly address polysemy, collocations, plurals, and culturally embedded expressions, with emphasis on contextual interpretation rather than literal transfer. AI can be integrated into vocabulary and terminology instruction by providing personalized practice, generating contextualized examples, and offering instant explanations and feedback. AI tools can create adaptive quizzes, visual representations of technical terms, and discipline-specific scenarios that strengthen lexical associations and deepen understanding. They also support learners by transcribing lectures, extracting key terminology, and enabling students to compare human and machine translations to develop critical awareness of technical equivalents. When used strategically, AI enhances exposure, reinforces retention, and helps instructors diagnose weaknesses and plan targeted remedial work. 5.1 Directions for Future Research Future research should expand beyond college-level EFL learners to include younger learners, multilingual contexts, and diverse educational settings to examine how lexical development unfolds across proficiency levels. More empirical studies are needed on the long-term impact of multimodal tools, mind-mapping, mobile apps, and online platforms on vocabulary depth, retention, and transfer to reading, writing, pronunciation, and translation. Research should also investigate how learners develop sensitivity to polysemes, collocations, morphological patterns, and phoneme–grapheme correspondences, and how instructional interventions can strengthen these skills. Given the growing role of AI in translation and language learning, future studies should examine how AI tools handle domain-specific vocabulary, idiomaticity, and cross-linguistic contrasts, and how learners can be trained to critically evaluate AI-generated output. Finally, meta-analytic work is needed to quantify effect sizes across instructional approaches and technological tools to provide stronger evidence for pedagogical decision-making.

  A Systematic Self-Review of Studies on EFL Vocabulary: Teaching, Assessment, Learning Outcomes, and AI Translation Quality · 2026 · DOI

• • Regex-based parsing approximates, rather than fully parses, syntax • Lack of deep dependency parsing or machine learning models • Focus limited to a single textbook (Book 2) Despite these limitations, the methodology provides a systematic and empirically grounded framework for analyzing textbook complexity.

  FROM CLAUSES TO COGNITION: A COMPUTATIONAL ANALYSIS OF LINGUISTIC COMPLEXITY IN INTERMEDIATE BOOK 2 · 2026 · DOI

• 153 Purpose and Metacognitive Strategies in Utilising AI LIMITATIONS This study has certain limitations. Moreover, it is important for further research on AI and its impact on metacognitive awareness in other fields of study for a wider perspective in this field of study.

  Exploring Students' Purpose and Metacognitive Strategies in Utilising Artificial Intelligence for Language Learning · 2026 · DOI

• The following recommendations are offered in light of study findings: 1. More visual materials might be incorporated such as using charts, diagrams mind map, videos to enhance students’ lexical competence and to encourage them reinforce comprehension. 2. A well-structured handouts, reading passages should be provided to students to give them chances to take notes. 3. To improve students’ aural processing skill, it should reinforce real activities such as role playing, physical games, pair oral instructions, group discussion, etc.

  The Effect of Using VARK-Based Instructional Strategies to Enhance Lexical Competence among EFL Secondary School Students · 2026 · DOI

• First, this study was limited to a population of tenth grade students in Lampung Province, Indonesia, so generalization of the results to a broader population may require additional research. Additionally, further research on digital divide mitigation strategies 25 Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa may provide opportunities to increase the accessibility of these tools in various educational settings.

  Utilizing Lingua.com as an Asynchronous Learning Catalyst for EFL Reading Comprehension · 2026 · DOI

• While this study provides valuable insights into the impact of LINGUA on EFL reading comprehension, there are avenues for future research to deepen our understanding. Longitudinal studies can investigate the sustained effects of using LINGUA over an extended period, examining whether the observed improvements in reading comprehension persist and contribute to long-term academic success. Additionally, further research can explore the optimal 27 Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa integration of LINGUA into a blended learning environment, combining asynchronous and synchronous components. Understanding how LINGUA complements traditional classroom instruction can inform educators about the most effective ways to leverage this tool for comprehensive language skill development. VI. Conclusion This study illuminates the pedagogical potency of LINGUA as an asynchronous learning catalyst for enhancing the reading comprehension skills of EFL students. The research findings underscore the multifaceted impact of LINGUA, encompassing improvements in reading comprehension proficiency, affective-motivational outcomes, and identified facilitators of improvement. The improvements observed in various facets of reading comprehension skills indicate that LINGUA serves as a valuable tool for fostering comprehensive development. The platform's asynchronous nature provides a conducive environment for focused engagement, critical thinking, and a nuanced understanding of language nuances. This aligns with the broader literature on the benefits of asynchronous learning environments, highlighting LINGUA's specific strengths in addressing the complexities of EFL reading comprehension. Moreover, the affective and motivational outcomes revealed in the study emphasize the transformative potential of LINGUA on students' enjoyment, motivation, proficiency, and confidence in reading comprehension. Furthermore, the identified facilitators of improvement, including the acknowledgment of challenges, exposure to 28 Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa diverse content, and positive feedback, provide valuable insights into the factors contributing to students' enhanced learning experiences with LINGUA. This study recommends strategically integrating LINGUA into asynchronous learning methods to enhance academic proficiency, boost student motivation, and bolster confidence in essential reading skills. Ongoing professional development for educators and continued research efforts can amplify LINGUA's effectiveness in EFL reading comprehension instruction, contributing valuable insights to the broader conversation on leveraging asynchronous learning platforms for EFL education amidst the evolving landscape of educational technology. Authorship contribution: Susanto Susanto: conceptualization, literature review, methodology, data analysis, and writing. Deri Sis Nanda: conceptualization, methodology, data collection, and writing.

  Utilizing Lingua.com as an Asynchronous Learning Catalyst for EFL Reading Comprehension · 2026 · DOI

• Thus, further research is needed to investigate the extent to which dual-task costs contribute to JOL reactivity. Even so, the direct effect of JOLs on learning foreign language vocabulary should be studied further before concluding whether this study strategy is detrimental for student learning. One limitation of the paradigm used in Experiments 2 and 3 was that participants were required to study each pair for a minimum of 5 s, after which the time was self-paced. Collectively, the literature on JOL reactivity in educational contexts is still in the early stages, and many open questions remain about the extent to which JOLs (and other metacognitive judgments) might directly impact learning. As well, future research is needed to explore whether our results generalize to other languages. Additional research is needed to explore this possibility. Additional work is needed to explore if JOL reactivity will be evident with other types of educational materials.

  Do judgments of learning have reactive effects on learning of foreign language vocabulary? · 2026 · DOI

• complex) denoting different amounts of this operationalization provides useful evidence on this topic and has greater ecological validity than comparing pictures with slight differences related to a specific variable, future studies should explore which specific types of complexity (e. Pedagogical Implications Based on the analysis of our limited data, for university-level EFL learners learning nouns, the presence or absence of illustrations may not lead to significant differences in short-term learning outcomes, especially with list learning.

  What Types of Illustrations are Effective in Intentional Vocabulary Learning? Simple or Complex? Clear or Unclear? · 2026 · DOI

• This effect could be explored across a wider range of more complex and ecologically valid foreign-language learning out- comes in future studies. These results may not be representative of typical maintenance outcomes of CALL instruction in which vocabulary that has been introduced in one session continues to be practiced across additional successive sessions.

  Comparison of Discrete-Trial and Stimulus-Pairing Procedures in Computer-Assisted Language Learning · 2026 · DOI

• Since this study integrated early and late measurement methods, further research is needed to separate early and late processing stages to determine whether Chinese learners of Korean can predict thematic roles in passive sentences using case markers before reaching the verb. However, one limitation of the present study lies in the lack of an independent proficiency measure.

  Exploring Korean Passive Sentence Processing in Chinese L2 Learners: An Eye-Tracking Study · 2026 · DOI

• That is why, future research should examine whether documented patterns persist at advanced proficiency levels or whether certain interference phenomena eventually undergo complete restructuring with extensive exposure. Future research could examine whether gamified learning environments (Nechifor et al. Moreover, the study contributes to the relatively underexplored domain of Chinese-Romanian language contact research, demonstrating how systematic CLA combined with empirical learner data can explain acquisition challenges specific to this language pairing.

  When Mandarin Meets Romanian: Linguistic Interference Patterns in Chinese Learners’ Acquisition of Romanian as a Second Language · 2026 · DOI

• This study recommended the following: 1. To the School Administrators of Talipao National High School – Main; they may strengthen institutional support for English language instruction through adequate learning resources such as updated instructional materials, reading programs, digital learning tools and etc. 2. English Language Teachers of Talipao; may adopt integrated and differentiated instructional strategies that recognize the interconnected nature of grammar, vocabulary, spelling, pronunciation, and sentence structure. Teachers may design grade-appropriate interventions such as contextualized grammar teaching, vocabulary enrichment through reading and discussion, spelling drills, and communicative speaking activities. 3. Through Parents; may support their children’s English language development at home by promoting reading habits, exposing them to English materials (e.g. books, media), and encouraging practice in both written and © 2026 The International Review of Multidisciplinary Research. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. 214 CHALLENGES OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNING AMONG JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS IN TALIPAO NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL The International Review of Multidisciplinary Research, Volume 1, Issue 8, 2026 spoken communication. Despite financial constraints, simple strategies such as guided reading, vocabulary practice, and consistent encouragement can significantly enhance students’ confidence and competence in English. Students may take an active role in improving their English language skills by engaging in regular practice of all language domains. Utilizing available resources such as school materials, peer collaboration, and digital tools can further support their learning. 4. Moreso, in Future researches, they may examine other fields that may affect the difficuties in English language learning such as; motivation, learning strategies, teacher competence, classroom environment. Expanding the scope to include other schools or regions may provide broader insights and enhance the generalizability of findings.

  Challenges of English Language Learning Among Junior High School Students in Talipao National High School – Main · 2026 · DOI

• The research was conducted in a specific educational environment, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other educational settings. The number of male participants was small because most students enrolled in the department that year were female; therefore, the results cannot be generalised to both genders. Additionally, because the researcher was also an instructor in the preparatory program, this may have influenced the participants' responses. Researchers need to be mindful of this factor, despite their best intentions. This study is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NonDerivative (CC BY NC ND) 163 Van Yüzüncü Yıl Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2026; 23(1), s. 147-170. Van Yüzüncü Yıl University Journal of Education, 2026; 23(1), p. 147-170.

  Classroom-Based Use of Electronic Dictionaries by Turkish EFL Preparatory Students: A Qualitative Case Study · 2026 · DOI

• However, the drop from 76% at Stage 3 to 42% at Stage 4 indicates that selective uptake guided by needs identified in output remains uncertain after one-month delay.

  Exploring the effects of the noticing function of output on second language learning in a four-stage Chinese-English translation task · 2026 · DOI

• Background: Many interventions targeting language and communication for students who use augmentative and alternative communication systems are multicomponent, but limited information is known about individual components and the interactions that are associated with the components that comprise an intervention.

  Using Conversation Analysis to Examine Individual Components of a Multicomponent AAC Intervention · 2026 · DOI

• Journal of Linguistics and Language Teaching (JLLT) Though millions of students study in intensive language programmes, expected gains and the effects of widely accessible factors such as linguistic distance, L2 proficiency, sex, age, and learning contexts remain unclear.

  Are We There Yet? Factors Affecting Proficiency Development for Speaking and Writing in Intensive English Study · 2026 · DOI

• To shed more light on the theories for L2 Chinese sentence processing, future studies could investigate the processing of more different typical Chinese sentence structures with various L1 backgrounds participants. A limitation of the current study is that the Korean learners of Chinese could also be English learners, which makes them not complete L2 Chinese learners in a strict sense.

  Processing of Chinese Double-Topic Sentences by L1-Korean Speakers · 2026 · DOI

• While this study yields valuable insights, its conclusions must be interpreted in light of several methodological constraints that also suggest directions for future research. First, the generalizability of the results is limited by the specific demographic composition of the sample—male undergraduate students from a single Egyptian university. Future studies should replicate this design with more diverse cohorts, including female learners and participants from varied cultural and linguistic backgrounds, to test the broader applicability of these findings. Second, the eight-week intervention, though sufficient for short-term analysis, did not permit observation of long-term retention or attitude stability. Longitudinal designs tracking learners over extended periods could reveal how digital tool affordances shape sustained learning trajectories. Moreover, the lack of a delayed post-test leaves open questions about retention. Third, the proficiency test may not have been sensitive enough to detect finegrained improvements—especially in lexical nuance, idiomaticity, and stylistic appropriateness—that the online dictionary may uniquely foster. Future studies should employ more nuanced evaluative tools, such as think-aloud protocols or error typology analyses, to capture these subtleties. Finally, this study relied on self-report measures for user experience. Future research should incorporate objective behavioral analytics, such as task logs, search frequency, and feature-use metrics, to triangulate subjective perceptions with quantitative indicators of engagement and efficiency. Such approaches would provide a more comprehensive understanding of how specific digital affordances mediate translation learning. Mekheimer Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ.

  Enhancing EFL translation in google classroom: a comparative study of online, CD-ROM, and paper dictionaries · 2026 · DOI

• The literature and findings facilitate the following recommendations for further research in Vietnamese and East Asian contexts. First, given that this study was the first examination of captioned video-based instruction for receptive vocabulary acquisition and productive vocabulary use in the EFL classroom at the intermediate level, further studies with homogeneous groups of higher English language proficiency are warranted. Therefore, the vocabulary level of captioned videos is also considered when selecting relevant interventions. Second, it is considered that the interventions should be extended in time, as this can help researchers achieve an objective evaluation of students’ vocabulary acquisition. Third, further research might prioritise developing and making available seminars and training programs to equip instructors with the appropriate skills and techniques to implement captioned video-based instruction effectively in their classrooms. By providing instructors with adequate guidance and designing diverse activities from the sources of captioned videos that contribute to enhancing the quality of teaching vocabulary for EFL students.

  Effects of Captioned Video-Based Instruction on Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Acquisition and Self-Perception among Vietnamese EFL Undergraduates: A Quasi-Experimental Study · 2026 · DOI

• In this empirical study, data were collected and analysed using two research instruments: two vocabulary tests and a questionnaire. These research instruments are used to investigate the effects of captioned videos on vocabulary acquisition and on self-perception of vocabulary learning. Nevertheless, the study still had two limitations that need to be deliberated: The first limitation is the population of the study. Because the two groups have unequal numbers of participants, 29 students are in the experimental group and 24 in the control group. Although the research group intended to maintain a balance in the number of participants between the two groups, the student population enrolled in the intermediate- level class differs. As a result, the research group had no means to ensure equal numbers of students in both groups. The second limitation is the time of the experiment phase. The experiment was implemented over 7 weeks: 1 week for the orientation meeting, 4 weeks for the interventions, and 2 weeks for the pre-and post-vocabulary tests and the pre- and post-questionnaire tests. The duration was inadequate for students to significantly improve their vocabulary acquisition and become more acquainted with captioned video-based instruction. Therefore, the post-questionnaire and post-vocabulary test scores are not particularly high.

  Effects of Captioned Video-Based Instruction on Receptive and Productive Vocabulary Acquisition and Self-Perception among Vietnamese EFL Undergraduates: A Quasi-Experimental Study · 2026 · DOI

• For further research on this topic, it is recommended to apply a longer intervention period. The treatment should be implemented for at least one year to ensure the application of all the stages of the word study approach, including the phonological, morphological, and etymological instruction. Likewise, word-level spelling accuracy assessment combined with developmental spelling stage features scoring is recommended to provide more evidence of the students’ spelling progress. Finally, a quasi-experimental with a comparison group, pre-test, and post-test design, along with repeated measurements (such as weekly assessments), should be applied to monitor students’ progress over time.

  The Effect of the Word Study Approach on English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Spelling Skills · 2026 · DOI

• The limitation of this study is the duration of the intervention; for other types of interventions, 14 weeks could be enough; however, for an approach like the word study, it might not. It must be considered that developing spelling skills takes years (Bear & Templeton, 1998); it is a cumulative process. This limitation is relevant in EFL Latin American contexts, where learners often receive limited phonemic awareness instruction in the target language. Due to the limited intervention period applied in this study. It was decided to assess only the features of the spelling developmental stages, and the word-level accuracy was not assessed. Therefore, the results from this study provide evidence of spelling developmental progress, and the findings cannot be generalized to word-level spelling accuracy.

  The Effect of the Word Study Approach on English as a Foreign Language Learners’ Spelling Skills · 2026 · DOI

• Several limitations constrain the interpretation of these findings. Sample size and composition. The study drew on 45 participants from one program at one institution. The Intuition subgroup (n = 8) was substantially smaller than the Sensing subgroup (n = 37), limiting the stability and generalizability of S-N comparisons. Findings involving Sensing-Intuition are therefore treated as exploratory observations rather than confirmatory results. Page | 18 IJTIS 6(2): 11-21 Inter-rater reliability. Two examiners assessed handwriting readability. They reached consensus scores through discussion. Because independent ratings were not preserved, formal inter-rater reliability coefficients could not be calculated. This limitation affects confidence in findings involving readability. Retention interval. Retention was measured through an immediate quiz after one hour of study. The findings reflect short-term recall rather than durable learning. Whether the observed patterns persist after delays of one week or longer remains unknown. MBTI as a measurement instrument. MBTI types were recorded as four-letter classifications without preference clarity indices or continuous scores. Continuous scores would have permitted correlational analyses and provided finer-grained insight into the strength of personality-linked associations, particularly for dichotomies where the present categorical comparisons yielded non-significant results. In light of these limitations, Table 4 presents a consolidated overview of the study’s key findings and their implications for terminology assessment and translator training.

  Technical Term Recall in Translation Training: Can Personality Preferences Explain Why Some Students Skip and Others Guess? · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Second Language Acquisition and Learning

• A New Academic Word List · TESOL Quarterly · 2000 · 1,581 citations
• Resolving 20 years of inconsistent interactions between lexical familiarity and orthography, concreteness, and polysemy. · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · 1984 · 454 citations
• Beyond the Books: Exploring Factors Shaping Chinese English Learners’ Engagement with Large Language Models for Vocabulary Learning · Education Sciences · 2024 · 153 citations
• Chatbot-assisted dynamic assessment (CA-DA) for L2 vocabulary learning and diagnosis · Computer Assisted Language Learning · 2021 · 153 citations
• Second Language Vocabulary Learning: The Role of Context versus Translations as a Function of Proficiency · Modern Language Journal · 1996 · 127 citations
• Artificial Intelligence-Based Content Generator Technology for Young English-as-a-Foreign-Language Learners’ Reading Enjoyment · RELC Journal · 2023 · 101 citations
• Universals in Learning to Read Across Languages and Writing Systems · Scientific Studies of Reading · 2021 · 100 citations
• Beyond single words: the most frequent collocations in spoken English · ELT Journal · 2007 · 97 citations
• Retention of Spanish vocabulary over 8 years. · Journal of Experimental Psychology Learning Memory and Cognition · 1987 · 96 citations
• How Effective Are Intentional Vocabulary‐Learning Activities? A Meta‐Analysis · Modern Language Journal · 2020 · 80 citations

Most recent work

• From Gutenberg to the classroom: large-scale generation and validation of vocabulary-controlled EFL reading materials · Language Testing in Asia · 2026
• Linguistic Understanding Beyond Knowledge, Ability, and Process: a Multi-Layered and Multi-Axial Model · Philosophy & Technology · 2026
• Students’ attitudes, challenges, and needs in English reading comprehension: Foundations for AI-integrated corpus-based language pedagogy · Discover Education · 2026
• Leveraging large language models to supplement corpus-based inductive learning of Chinese as a second language · Applied Corpus Linguistics · 2026
• La disponibilidad léxica como metodología al servicio de distintas disciplinas lingüísticas · Borealis – An International Journal of Hispanic Linguistics · 2026
• Processing of Chinese Double-Topic Sentences by L1-Korean Speakers · Journal of Psycholinguistic Research · 2026
• Jargonization, Language Development, and Team Performance · Sociological Science · 2026
• The effect of AI-assisted dynamic assessment on receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary · Studies In Educational Evaluation · 2026
• The Effect of an Augmented Reality Game-Supported Flipped Learning Model on Cognitive Load, Lexical Retention, and Speaking Fluency in EFL Learners · Computer Assisted Language Learning · 2026
• Cognitive Load Optimization of Context and Digital Game-Based Vocabulary Learning and Retention · International Journal of Computer-Assisted Language Learning and Teaching · 2026

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