Open research questions in Sport Psychology and Performance

What the literature leaves open

• Test-retest reliability, intraclass correlation coefficients, measurement error, responsiveness, and minimal detectable change should be examined before the FTSS is used to monitor individual change.

  Development of the football tactical skills scale and comparison of scores across player and training characteristics · 2026 · DOI

• Future investigations should examine whether analogous effects can be replicated across diverse gaming genres. Fourth, mediating mechanisms were not explored. Fifth, key boundary conditions and moderating variables were insufficiently examined. Subsequent research employing mediation models is warranted to disentangle these underlying processes.

  MOBA eSports participation and psychological traits in individuals with disabilities—an association analysis grounded in self-efficacy, social support, and trait sport confidence · 2026 · DOI

• taking, as a core component of visuospatial processing and a central construct assessed in the current study, demonstrates a similarly extended developmental course. Although certain age periods – most notably around ages 8–9 – are characterized by accelerated improvements, maturation in is far from uniform (38), suggesting that these domains chronological age alone does not the developmental status of these abilities. fully account for However, our analysis did not identify any significant effects associated with CMDT training. The absence of CMDT-specific improvement in VSWM performance may be attributable to a mismatch between the training activities and the assessment task. Although system presented the NORT Complex information at different spatial locations, these locations may not have been sufficiently task-relevant during training to repeatedly engage the spatial transformation and perspectivetaking processes measured by the VSWM task. In other words, task-relevant information was primarily encoded in the visual signals displayed on the screen, whereas the spatial location of the displays was likely of little or no relevance during training. It is also possible that the VSWM task was not sensitive enough to detect subtle training-related changes, and that ceiling or floor effects at certain difficulty limited improvement. Moreover, although visuospatial measurable working memory and perspective-taking abilities continue to develop throughout childhood and adolescence, this maturation is not uniform across the U8-U12 age range which may have further confounded the detection of any training-related effects. levels may have Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 10 frontiersin.org Székely et al. 10.3389/fspor.2026.1863511 FIGURE 9 Pre- to post-intervention susceptibility to fission and fusion illusions at the shortest SOA conditions. Panel (a) shows susceptibility to the fission illusion, and panel (b) shows susceptibility to the fusion illusion at 100 and 150 ms SOAs. Values represent mean ± SE. Lower values indicate reduced illusion susceptibility, reflecting greater audiovisual temporal precision. Asterisks indicate significant pre- to post-intervention differences (* p <.05).

  Cognitive-motor dual-task training differentially affects visual working memory, multifocal attention, and multisensory integration in youth soccer players · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings and limitations of the present study, the following recommendations are proposed for future research and practical application. First, given the absence of a follow-up assessment, future studies should incorporate delayed follow-up tests (e.g., three- or six-month post-intervention) to evaluate the long-term stability of self-compassion training effects on mental toughness. Second, researchers are encouraged to use qualitative or mixed-method designs to capture athletes’ subjective experiences with virtual self-compassion programmes, thereby enriching understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Third, comparative studies examining face-to-face versus virtual delivery of compassion-based interventions are needed to determine the most effective modality for elite wrestlers. Fourth, coaches and sport psychologists should integrate virtual self-compassion exercises into regular training routines, as they are cost-effective, accessible, and time-saving. Finally, replication studies with larger, more diverse samples (including female athletes and different sports) are essential to enhance the generalisability of the results.

  The effect of a virtual self-compassion training program on mental toughness in young elite male freestyle wrestlers · 2026 · DOI

• RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH The findings of this study may be limited by the cultural context in which the athletes were raised and live. Therefore, these topics could be investigated at an international level, incorporating athletes from diverse cultural backgrounds. Given that an individual's beliefs are shaped by environmental factors such as family and peers, as well as their emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses to past challenges, future studies could examine the relationship between athletes' irrational performance beliefs and the irrational beliefs of their parents and coaches, who are significant influencers. In addition to cross- sectional studies, practical counseling sessions or training programs based on the Acceptance 17 and Diffusion-based Training (ADDT) implemented to mitigate the adverse effects of athletes' irrational performance beliefs and foster the development of their necessary mental skills. Based on the findings of this study, given that irrational performance beliefs, mental toughness, and trait anxiety are interrelated and that mental toughness and trait anxiety are considered aspects of personality, future research could investigate the relationship between irrational beliefs and constructs from personality theories. This study employed quantitative research design. Further in-depth investigations into these topics could be conducted by incorporating experimental, qualitative, and applied approaches.

  The effect of mental toughness on the relationship between irrational performance beliefs and trait anxiety levels of Turkish athletes: a mediation analysis · 2026 · DOI

• The findings of this study revealed that mental training skills showed significant differences according to demographic variables such as gender, sport branch, age and educational level. In this context, it is important that future research continues to examine the relationship between mental skills training and individual differences in more depth. In particular, it should be emphasized how mental training can be developed more effectively with customized programs according to the personal characteristics of the athlete. Differences in mental training skills between different sports offer a broader perspective on how athletes with disabilities use their mental strategies more intensively. In this regard, studies in goalball and wheelchair basketball are critical in understanding how mental training contributes to athletes overcoming their physical and emotional limits. Furthermore, the finding that individuals with less athletic experience had higher mental training skills emphasizes the importance of early mental training programs for young athletes. These findings are consistent with the literature explaining that as athletes gain 280 CBU Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 2026, 21(2), 270-283 experience, mental strategies become more automatic and unconsciously optimize their performance. Therefore, the development of specific mental training programs for young athletes may support their long-term development. Research to be conducted in line with these suggestions will help us better understand the factors affecting the mental skills of athletes and will make important contributions to the sport psychology literature. Conflict of Interest: There is no conflict of interest. Researchers’ Statement of Contribution Rate: Research Design HYC, Statistical analysis ARA, Preparation of the article HYC, Data Collection was carried out by HYC.

  Mental Training Levels in Disabled Elite Athletes · 2026 · DOI

• https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000006288127 Wulf, G. (2013). Attentional focus and motor learning: A review of 15 years. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(1), 77-104. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2012.723728 Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (1999). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri (13. Baskı). Seçkin Yayıncılık. 19 Cited in: Kara, N. Ş., & Kara, M. (2026). The perceived concentration level in athletes scale (PCLAS): A validity and reliability study.

  The Perceived Concentration Level in Athletes Scale (PCLAS): A Validity and Reliability Study · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies may further examine the dynamic role of trust in regulating interaction processes within acrobatic pairs using longitudinal and experimental designs. In particular, investigating the relationship between trust organization, interpersonal interaction styles, and psychophysiological regulation may provide deeper insight into the multi-level mechanisms underlying compatibility in dyadic sports. The analysis of interpersonal positioning based on Leary’s interpersonal circumplex may further clarify how role distribution and interaction patterns are organized within acrobatic pairs.

  Trust as a Mechanism of Role-Dependent Regulation in Acrobatic Pairs · 2026 · DOI

• The cross-sectional design precludes causal inference, and self-report measures may be subject to recall bias. Future research should employ longitudinal or experimental designs to con�irm the mediating role of selfcompassion and explore additional moderators (e.g., fear of self-compassion, coping styles). Examining physiological stress markers (e.g., cortisol, HRV) alongside psychological variables would provide a more comprehensive understanding of stress regulation in combat athletes.

  Self compassion as a Protective Mediator Between Childhood Adversity and Stress in Combat Athletes · 2026 · DOI

• Subjective assessment of coaches’ behavior The data were based solely on the players’ perceptions, without any external or observational assessment of the coaches’ behaviors. Future studies may benefit from using observational tools to complement self-report measures, as suggested by comparative analyses of coach behaviour observation instruments (Ordeix et al., 2023).

  Evaluating the Behavior of Football Coaches in the U15 Category Through the Eyes of Players – An Intercultural Approach · 2026 · DOI

• Research findings suggest that leadership orientations among university-level athletes may be more closely related to the nature of the sport practised and the social interaction processes in which athletes are involved than to their levels of cognitive flexibility. Within this framework, it is recommended that coaches and sports administrators aiming to develop leadership potential in athletes prioritise psycho-social intervention programmes that strengthen athletes' social bonds and support their roles and sense of responsibility within the team. On the other hand, it is recommended that future research examine the relationship between cognitive flexibility and leadership by including different variables, using larger sample groups and longitudinal research designs. REFERENCES Akyol, G., & Taşkıran, C. (2023). Elit düzey güreşçilerin bilişsel esneklik düzeyleri ve stresle başa çıkma stratejileri. Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 28(4), 267-275. Alpar, R. C. (2013). Uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistiksel yöntemler. Detay Yayıncılık. Altınışık, Ü., & Çelik, A. (2022). Spor bilimleri fakültesi öğrencilerinin liderlik yönelimleri ile duygusal zekâ düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Spor Bilimleri Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7(1), 225-236. Altunkol, F. (2011). Üniversite öğrencilerinin bilişsel esneklikleri ile algılanan stres düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Çukurova Üniversitesi. Arslan, F., & Uğurlu, Ö. Y. (2017). 1997-2017 yılları arasında liderlik becerileri ile ilgili araştırmaların içerik analizi ile incelenmesi. Yönetim ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 15(2), 62-80. Asıcı, E., & İkiz, F. (2015). Mutluluğa giden bir yol: Bilişsel esneklik. Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Education Faculty, 1(35), 191-211. Bayrakdaroğlu, Y., Şenel, E., & Karakuş, K. (2022). Çok yönlü liderlik ile duygu düzenleme arasındaki ilişki. Spor Eğitim Dergisi, 6(3), 228-239. Bilgiç, R., & Bilgin, M. (2016). Ergenlerin cinsiyet ve öğrenim kademesi düzeylerine göre bilişsel esneklik düzeyleri ile karar stratejileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Uşak Üniversitesi Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(2), 39-55. Bilgin, M. (2017). Ergenlerin beş faktör kişilik özelliği ile bilişsel esneklik ilişkisi. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 16(62), 945-954. Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1991). Leadership and management effectiveness: A multi-frame, multi-sector analysis. Human Resource Management, 30(4), 509-534. Cañas, J., Quesada, J., Antolí, A., & Fajardo, I. (2003). Cognitive flexibility and adaptability to environmental changes in dynamic complex problem-solving tasks. Ergonomics, 46(5), 482-501. Chelladurai, P. (2007). Leadership in sports. G. Tenenbaum & R. C. Eklund (Ed.), Handbook of sport psychology içinde (ss. 113–135). Wiley.

  Investigation of The Relationship Between Cognitive Flexibility and Leadership Orientations: A Research on University Athletes · 2026 · DOI

• It was worth noting that the present research was not without its methodological limitations. Firstly, the study was conducted exclusively with professional women soccer players in Turkey, which limited the generalizability of the results to various cultural contexts. Cultural factors like gender norms and competitive structures could shape the formation of irrational beliefs and team dynamics. Thereby, one should be cautious when applying these findings to different cultural settings, and future research should consider employing cross-cultural study designs. Besides, the distribution of subjects across league levels was uneven, with most players playing in the 3rd league, which should be considered when interpreting the results. Secondly, while the inventories utilised in this study were commonly used to evaluate irrational beliefs and team resilience, discovering alternative methods for measuring these variables should be explored. Additionally, the cross-sectional design of the research was insufficient for understanding the long-term effects of irrational beliefs on team dynamics. Accordingly, the employment of longitudinal and experimental research designs was recommended for forthcoming research initiatives. Especially in research on complex concepts such as team dynamics, it would be advisable to consider additional variables, including leadership style, team social support, collective self-efficacy, and individual resilience, in the subsequent analysis. The observation of low R² values did not necessarily imply a lack of robustness in the model. Instead, it highlighted the need to integrate these variables in conjunction with other factors (Hair et al., 2010). In sports psychology, the relationship between personal beliefs and team dynamics could be explored using more sophisticated models than linear regression. For example, structural equation modelling (SEM) or hierarchical regression analyses might offer a more extensive rationale for the interaction between individual beliefs and social dynamics within a team. Therefore, future studies should employ more holistic models that integrate not 131 Spormetre The Journal of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, 24(1), 2026, 122-136 only irrational beliefs but also variables such as team communication, emotional contagion, and leadership.

  THE IMPACT OF IRRATIONAL PERFORMANCE BELIEFS ON THE TEAM RESILIENCE OF PROFESSIONAL WOMEN'S SOCCER PLAYERS · 2026 · DOI

• • Large sample size • Use mixed-method research design. • Multi-center studies • Include diverse age group and genders. Source of Funding/Support: self Conflicting Interest: none Ethical Clearance: approval from committee was obtained prior to the study institutional ethics Table 4 and graph 4 shows comparison of post test values of control and experimental group score mean values are 50.53and 54.4 respectively. The calculated ‘t’ value is 4.0722and ‘p’ value is 0.0003which is and it shows it is statistically significant and the experimental group has significant improvement.

  Effect of Team-Building Activities on Team Cohesion among Cricket Players · 2026 · DOI

• converge with CLA assumptions by prioritizing decision- making, recognition of advantages and disadvantages, and functional versatility within context (21, 25). Considering that coaches are responsible for defining objectives, selecting content, and applying methodological strategies within the development process (7, 29), investigating their perspectives becomes essential for analyzing the coherence between theoretical guidelines and pedagogical practice at the elite youth level. Within this context, the concept of Representative Learning Design (RLD) becomes central, as it proposes that training tasks should preserve the perceptual–decision-making information present in competition, ensuring functional correspondence between training and competition environments (25, 30). Task representativeness enhances the perception of affordances and learning to behavioral adaptation, allowing tactical-technical occur under ecologically valid conditions. Thus, rather than simply repeating technical gestures, the pedagogical challenge lies in structuring training environments that maintain the informational dynamics of the formal game. Given this context, the aim of the present study was to analyze and systematize the opinions of Brazilian coaches with experience in male youth national teams regarding the priority tactical- technical content during the specialization stage (U15 to U19), interpreting these perspectives through the principles of the Constraint-Led Approach and discussing convergences and tensions with contemporary recommendations for game-based learning (21, 27).

  Long-term tactical–technical development in elite youth basketball: Brazilian national team coaches' perspectives within a Constraint-Led Approach framework · 2026 · DOI

• Further research is required to clarify the hypothetical reasoning discussed and to obtain better data to improve understanding of the long-term implications of current player development strategies. This study has addressed a specific gap in the literature and provide important insights about the impact of playing-up and mixed-gender play within football.

  Pathways to the senior national teams: experiences of playing-up and mixed-gender play among Swedish elite female footballers · 2026 · DOI

• Agility and change-of-direction (COD) ability represent key determinants of tennis performance, yet the rapid evolution of research in this area over recent years has not been systematically characterized.

  Trends in Agility Development Research Among Tennis Athletes between 2024 and 2025 · 2026 · DOI

• Purpose Despite the global emphasis on talent identification and development (TID), longitudinal evidence on physical development in Asian youth remains scarce.

  Maturity-specific trajectories of physical fitness in talented youth athletes: a longitudinal study of Japanese local talent identification and development programme · 2026 · DOI

• While the present study offers useful insights into the multidimensional role of sports education, several limitations should be acknowledged. • The study used a cross-sectional design, which limits the ability to establish causal relationships among the variables because the temporal direction of the relationships cannot be fully confirmed. • The findings are based on self-reported data, which may involve response bias, social desirability bias, and common method variance, thereby potentially affecting the precision of the measured relationships. Future studies may use objective indicators, such as cognitive performance tests, behavioral measures, or external assessments, to improve validity. • Another limitation relates to the consistently positive and statistically significant relationships observed across the proposed hypotheses. Although these findings are theoretically aligned with prior literature on sports education and developmental outcomes, the strength of the relationships may also reflect certain methodological factors, including sample homogeneity, self-reported perceptions, and potential social desirability tendencies among respondents. Since the participants shared relatively similar educational and sports-related backgrounds, variability in responses may have been reduced, potentially contributing to stronger positive associations among the constructs. Therefore, the findings should be interpreted with appropriate caution. Future studies are encouraged to utilize more heterogeneous samples, longitudinal designs, and multi-source data collection approaches to further validate the robustness and generalizability of the observed relationships. • The sample was drawn from a specific context using convenience sampling, which may restrict the broader generalizability of the findings across different cultural, institutional, and socioeconomic environments.

  The sports-education-health nexus: assessing psychological, cognitive, and social outcomes in a public health framework · 2026 · DOI

• This meta-analysis has several limitations. First, expo- sure quantification varied substantially across studies, ranging from self-reported heading frequency to sensor- based impact metrics, introducing potential misclassifica- tion. Second, the included cognitive assessments were het- erogeneous and not uniformly validated for detecting sub- tle subconcussive effects. Third, although heterogeneity at the domain level was absent, the global analysis demon- strated moderate between-study variability, reflecting un- derlying methodological diversity. Fourth, publication bias cannot be excluded, as smaller studies tended to report larger effects. Fifth, the cross-sectional nature of most in- cluded studies limits causal inference, and prospective lon- gitudinal data remain sparse. Several methodological considerations merit careful in- terpretation of the pooled effect estimates. To address non- independence arising from multiple cognitive outcomes re- ported by individual investigative groups, an author-level aggregation strategy was employed. While this approach strengthens statistical validity by preventing artificial infla- tion of sample size, it may also reduce between-study vari- ance and contribute to comparatively narrow CIs. In addi- tion, sizes (Hedges’ g and Fisher’s z) into odds ratios facilitates cross- study harmonization but does not directly reflect absolute clinical incidence or risk in real-world populations. the transformation of standardized effect Consequently, the reported odds ratios should be inter- preted as relative measures of cognitive vulnerability asso- ciated with repetitive head-impact exposure rather than risk. Although sensitivity precise estimates of clinical analyses and bias diagnostics demonstrated robust stability of the findings, future large-scale prospective studies with standardized exposure metrics and longitudinal cognitive follow-up will be essential to more accurately define abso- lute risk trajectories.

  Risk of Cognitive Decline in Professional Soccer Players after Repetitive Subconcussive Impacts: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis · 2026 · DOI

• The limiting factors of the study included the time to study the research problem, which was extensive and required more time to study. Other limitations were the sample size, gender, and age of the participants – the athletes aged 18 and 25 had different indicators of psychological health. At the same time, the survey method was a limitation of the study. Surveys may be limited by insufficient data and do not always provide an opportunity to conduct a deeper analysis. In addition, descriptive studies do not identify cause-and-effect relationships or establish the influence of one variable on another. Nevertheless, they provide valuable information about the current state of the studied issue. Further studies can also consider other factors.

  Exploring the correlation between psychological indicators and professional sports performance athletes through virtual reality training · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the above conclusions, this paper suggests that training management should reconceptualize “control” not merely as a disciplinary tool or means of enforcement, but as an adjustable contextual variable within the resources–emotions–engagement mechanism. Greater attention should be given to developing clear, actionable, and traceable institutional arrangements for communication rules, feedback procedures, and control intensity decisions. Such arrangements may help reduce the sustained consumption of athletes’ cognitive resources under high-control exhaustion from developing conditions, prevent into emotional blunting, and maintain high-quality training engagement without weakening training standards. Specific recommendations are as follows. cognitive First, coaches should regulate the frequency of authoritative demands, repeated corrections, and punitive feedback. Clear requirements should be maintained in critical areas such as technical safety and training discipline, while athletes should be given appropriate room for interpretation and adjustment during exploratory or adaptive training tasks. Second, training feedback should be specific, concise, and actionable. Coaches should reduce continuous and generalized negative evaluations and instead adopt a structured feedback approach that follows the sequence of problem identification, cause explanation, and direction for improvement. This approach may reduce the psychological burden associated with athletes’ constant self-monitoring. Third, training management should monitor signs of cognitive including post-training exhaustion and emotional blunting, concentration difficulties, slowed responses, limited emotional reactions to training outcomes, and diminished anticipation of challenging tasks. These signs should be treated as important indicators for adjusting control training load, and feedback methods. intensity, Fourth, greater attention should be paid to female athletes they may be more sports, as strain and emotional blunting can help increasing supportive of training conditions. Coaches engagement by providing more the in individual and athletes vulnerable to psychological under high-control these athletes communication feedback, and training goals.

  The relationship between training intensity and training effort: the chain mediation of cognitive exhaustion and emotional blunting · 2026 · DOI

• Although this study provides empirical evidence on the relationships among cognitive exhaustion, emotional blunting, and training engagement in high-control training contexts, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study used singletime-point, cross-sectional self-report data. Structural equation modeling and chained mediation analysis mainly reveal statistical associations and theoretical model fit among variables. They cannot establish the temporal ordering of variables or support strict causal inferences. Future research could employ longitudinal tracking, cross-lagged designs, diary methods, or experimental interventions to further examine the dynamic relationships among training control intensity, cognitive exhaustion, emotional blunting, and training engagement. core confirmatory variables were through procedural controls, Harman’s and one-factor Second, although this study addressed potential common singlemethod bias analysis, factor test, the still primarily measured using athlete self-report questionnaires. The results may therefore remain susceptible to social desirability bias and transient emotional coach studies evaluations, training observations, objective load records, and behavioral indicators of engagement to strengthen multi-source data validation. could incorporate states. Future factor Third, the sample was drawn mainly from China’s university competitive training programs and provincial training units. These contexts are characterized by hierarchical management, centralized training arrangements, authoritative coaching structures, and performance-oriented evaluation systems. Therefore, the findings are more applicable to standardized competitive training contexts in China. Their generalizability to other countries, professional clubs, community sports organizations, or youth development systems requires further examination.

  The relationship between training intensity and training effort: the chain mediation of cognitive exhaustion and emotional blunting · 2026 · DOI

• only female factors students, such as university the observed changes Several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the study employed a single-group pre-test–post-test design without a control group, which limits the ability to control for potential confounding individual motor abilities, functional capacities, instructional influences, and environmental conditions. Therefore, should be interpreted as associative rather than causal. Second, the sample included reducing generalizability to male students or other age groups. Third, the study focused on short-term effects over a three-month period, long-term psychological outcomes were not assessed. and Fourth, the study relied primarily on self-report questionnaires to measure psychological outcomes, without incorporating formal objective performance or skill metrics, which limits the ability to substantiate effectiveness claims of the intervention. Fifth, the distribution of participants across academic years and swimming levels was not fully balanced, with some subgroups including fewer than 15 participants. Although this did not affect the main statistical analyses, it may have reduced the sensitivity to detect potential differences between groups. Future research should consider experimental or quasi-experimental designs to strengthen causal inferences and reduce potential bias. It is also recommended include mixed-gender and more diverse samples to explore possible gender-related or contextual differences in psychological responses. Additionally, long-term follow-up assessments are needed to examine the persistence and stability of improvements in confidence, focus, and anxiety reduction over time. Future investigations could also apply this framework to other sport domains such as gymnastics, martial arts, or team sports to assess whether assistive tool-based include a control or comparison group that to Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 08 frontiersin.org Alawamleh et al. 10.3389/fspor.2026.1788570 training yields similar psychological and technical benefits beyond swimming. Incorporating objective performance-based measures such as timed swims, technical skill evaluations, or wearable sensor data intervention’s can provide more robust evidence of effectiveness. Furthermore, exploring the integration of emerging technologies, including virtual or augmented reality, may further enhance understanding of how assistive tools influence both skill acquisition and psychological readiness in swimming and other physical education contexts. the than rather responsiveness Regarding measurement validity, the Anxiety Assessment Questionnaire (AAQ) was selected because of its established psychometric reliability and frequent use in sports psychology research. However, it was originally developed for competitive or trained athlete populations, which may limit its sensitivity in detecting short-term psychological changes among beginner, nonathlete participants. Therefore, the non-significant reduction in anxiety observed in this study may partly reflect the instrument’s limited the absence of actual psychological improvement. Future research could employ or adapt measurement tools specifically designed for novice or recreational populations to enhance sensitivity to short-term emotional changes. should be acknowledged, as participants might have experienced perceived improvements in confidence or focus simply due to their awareness of participating in a structured intervention using assistive tools. This expectancy bias may have influenced selfinclude reported outcomes. Moreover, longitudinal limits the understanding of whether the observed psychological changes were sustained over time. Future research incorporating longterm follow-up measurements would provide a clearer picture of the persistence and stability of these effects.

  Impact of assistive tool-based training on anxiety, mental focus, and self-confidence among university swimming students · 2026 · DOI

• emphasizing Self-Determination Theory (33, 34), in turn, provides a optimal motivational performance and well-being are supported when the basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness are satisfied. Within swimming instruction, assistive tools and feedback-based strategies may help learners feel more in control of through manageable challenges, and engage more positively with instructors and peers. Such experiences may foster intrinsic motivation, self- confidence, and sustained mental focus during practice (21, 35). Taken together, CLT and SDT provide a useful theoretical basis for understanding how assistive tools may enhance psychological readiness in beginner swimmers. their progress, experience success technical and psychological aspects of Empirical evidence suggests that assistive tools can support both swimming instruction. By helping learners focus on specific movement components, reducing physical strain, and facilitating task- specific feedback, these tools may improve skill execution while also enhancing concentration, confidence, and engagement during practice (23, 36–40). Such benefits appear particularly important in early learning stages, when fear, anxiety, and interfere with skill difficulty coordinating movements may acquisition (41–43). Overall, these findings are consistent with motor learning principles, which emphasize task simplification, reduced cognitive load, and feedback as key elements for effective skill development (44–46). technical performance, such as Although several studies have examined the impact of assistive tools on improving body positioning and reducing physical strain (10, 38), research on their effects on psychological variables, namely anxiety, mental focus, and self-confidence among beginners remains limited. For example, Alkasasbeh et al. (2024) found that mobile-assisted swimming applications reduced fear of water and increased motivation, but did not directly assess anxiety, mental focus, or (2020) self-confidence reported that swimming boards increased interest in learning freestyle without (48). Likewise, van Duijn et al. (2021) studied equipment and environmental influences on aquatic skill learning, yet did not address effects on anxiety, mental focus, or self-confidence (23). (47). Similarly, Sin and Hudayani examining psychological impacts This highlights that, although assistive and technological tools can enhance specific aspects of swimming performance, their effects on psychological variables may vary (49). Moreover, research specifically examining the psychological effects of assistive tool-based training in swimming, particularly among university students, remains limited. Therefore, this study aims to examine the effects of assistive tool-based training on anxiety, Frontiers in Sports and Active Living 02 frontiersin.org Alawamleh et al. 10.3389/fspor.2026.1788570 mental focus, and self-confidence among beginner university swimming students, while also considering demographic factors such as years of swimming experience, academic year, and current swimming level. Specifically, the study addresses the following research questions: (1) Does assistive tool-based training affect anxiety, mental focus, and self-confidence among beginner university swimming students from pre-test to post-test? and (2) What is the effect of demographic variables (years of swimming experience, academic level, and current swimming level) on these psychological measures when assistive tools are used?

  Impact of assistive tool-based training on anxiety, mental focus, and self-confidence among university swimming students · 2026 · DOI

• Although the study provides useful insights, some limitations should be considered. First, all data were self-reported, which may introduce common method bias, for example through subjective interpretations or social desirability. In addition, the cross-sectional design does not allow for causal conclusions about the relationships between athletes’ perceptions, developmental environments, and dual career preparation. The study also focused specifically on adolescent handball players within a particular talent development context, so the findings may not be directly transferable to other sports, age groups, or settings. Moreover, as the research was conducted in Hungary, the characteristics of the national sport and education system may have influenced the results.

  Preparing for life beyond sport: dual career awareness, developmental environment, and future orientation in adolescent handball · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Sport Psychology and Performance

• Does mental practice enhance performance? · Journal of Applied Psychology · 1994 · 718 citations
• Knowledge, Attitude, and Concussion-Reporting Behaviors Among High School Athletes: A Preliminary Study · Journal of Athletic Training · 2013 · 397 citations
• Career development and transitions of athletes: the International Society of Sport Psychology Position Stand Revisited · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · 2020 · 300 citations
• Psychological Consequences of Athletic Injury among High-Level Competitors · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · 1994 · 170 citations
• Building Sport Programs to Optimize Athlete Recruitment, Retention, and Transition: Toward a Normative Theory of Sport Development · Journal of Sport Management · 2005 · 167 citations
• The Relationship Between Deliberate Practice and Performance in Sports · Perspectives on Psychological Science · 2016 · 166 citations
• Adolescent Sport Participation and Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · 2020 · 164 citations
• Development and Preliminary Validation of the Injury-Psychological Readiness to Return to Sport (I-PRRS) Scale · Journal of Athletic Training · 2009 · 163 citations
• The impact of identity leadership on team functioning and well-being in team sport: Is psychological safety the missing link? · Psychology of sport and exercise · 2020 · 160 citations
• Toward an Integrated Understanding of the Youth Sport System · Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport · 2020 · 146 citations

Most recent work

• Mental health and well‐being in esports: A scoping review · Applied Psychology · 2026
• Effects of non-functional overreaching and overtraining syndrome on psychological and cognitive functioning in elite athletes: A systematic review · Psychology of Sport and Exercise · 2026
• Impact of assistive tool-based training on anxiety, mental focus, and self-confidence among university swimming students · Frontiers in Sports and Active Living · 2026
• The Meta-Problem in Scientific Research in Physical Education and Sport: Architecture and Pathways to Knowledge · Physical Education Theory and Methodology · 2026
• Longitudinal event‑sampling dataset of football fans across five countries during the 2024 European championship · 2026
• Mental Health and Cultural Barriers in Collegiate Sport: A Cross-National Mixed Methods Study of U.S. and South Korean Collegiate Athletes · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · 2026
• Interpersonal Violence in French Sports Clubs: Who Are the Victims? · Journal of Sport and Social Issues · 2026
• The effect of training in green space on young athletes’ sports competition anxiety: a quasi-experimental study · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · 2026
• Effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy among adolescent athletes: a systematic review · International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology · 2026
• Investigation of The Relationship Between Cognitive Flexibility and Leadership Orientations: A Research on University Athletes · Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi · 2026

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