Open research questions in Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes

What the literature leaves open

• Nithideechaiwarachok et al., 2024). Together, these approaches create a learning environment where students are empowered to construct knowledge both independently and socially, reflecting the core principles of constructivist and sociocultural theories (Miller et al., 2020; Nithideechaiwarachok et al., 2024; Pricopie, 2020; Tytler et al., 2019). through practice in context and that value learning These results align with a substantial body of research demonstrating that playful, inquiry-based, and student-centered approaches are highly effective in promoting conceptual understanding and problemsolving skills. Studies have shown that such methods—whether through design jams, inquiry-based STEM activities, or cooperative, hands-on learning—foster critical thinking, creativity, and collaboration, all of which are essential for deep learning and skill development (Gunawan et al., 2020; Karamustafaoğlu & Pektaş, 2023; Kumazah & Agyei, 2025; Saad, 2020; Tang et al., 2020). Inquiry-based teaching, in particular, has been found to significantly enhance students’ reasoning abilities, conceptual knowledge, and long-term retention of complex ideas (Gunawan et al., 2020; Kumazah & Agyei, 2025; Tan et al., 2020; Tawfik et al., 2020). The unique contribution of this study lies in its focus on frugal education, which emphasizes simplicity, adaptability, and sustainability by leveraging low-cost, readily available materials to create meaningful learning experiences. This approach not only supports engagement and creativity but also addresses the challenges faced in resource-limited educational settings, making quality learning more accessible and equitable (Karamustafaoğlu & Pektaş, 2023; Saad, 2020). By integrating frugal principles with proven studentcentered strategies, the study highlights a practical and innovative pathway for improving educational outcomes in diverse contexts (Karamustafaoğlu & Pektaş, 2023; Saad, 2020; Tang et al., 2020). Then, this study can be positioned as a direct continuation of Thaariq et al's (2023) study because (1) it uses the same pretest–posttest design; (2) it shows an identical pattern of improvement in all Anatolian Journal of Education, April 2026 ● Vol.11, No.1 176 Frugal Thinking in Action: Improving Learning Outcomes … participants; (3) it utilizes the same activity-based learning principles; and (4) it expands the application from creativity to broader and more complex competencies. Thus, this study tends to provide an empirical extension that strengthens the evidence that exploration-based learning and environmental manipulation are effective in various educational contexts and areas of competence.

  Frugal Thinking in Action: Improving Learning Outcomes through Loose Part-Based Instruction · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should explore in more compre- hensive settings how video-based self-learning environments for remediation can relieve, rather than replace, teachers, and which integrated designs combining teacher-led classroom discussion and video-based (digital) self-learning are ecological and effective. Since such combinations may present new challenges for teachers, future research should examine pro- fessional development programs that emphasize the importance of constructive and interac- tive student engagement with a focus on the relevant conceptual content (Chi et al. Failing to capture these variables is an important limitation of our study and could have helped clarify why most students in our sample only partially used the learning opportunities (see raw engagement scores in Table 2).

  Can Interactive Videos Enhance Understanding of Variables as Generalizers? Randomized Controlled Trial on Engagement Effects · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should examine whether the relationships among generative AI support, cognitive load, prior knowledge, and sustained learning intention differ learning domains.

  Cognitive load, prior knowledge, and sustained learning intention in a generative-AI-supported digital cultural learning context · 2026 · DOI

• for Researchers Results indicate that treatment learners demonstrated significantly higher en- gagement and performance than control learners, with large effects for course activity completion (d = 0.77) and module views (d = 0.65), and moderate ef- fects for quiz grades (d = 0.38). Machine learning analyses further revealed more differentiated behavioral patterns and stable associations between cogni- tive load-related behaviors and learning outcomes among treatment learners. Educators and instructional designers can apply the proposed methodology to unobtrusively monitor learners’ cognitive load and implement targeted interface scaffolds that enhance engagement and performance without altering core in- structional content. Researchers are encouraged to adopt and extend the proposed methodology to examine cognitive load dynamics across disciplines, platforms, and instructional designs, and use it as a foundation for theory-driven learning analytics studies that move beyond purely predictive models.

  From Moodle Logs to Cognitive Load and Performance Insights: A Theory-Driven Analytics Methodology · 2026 · DOI

• The findings of this study indicate that gender-based differences in affective expressiveness constitute a critical indicator for monitoring cognitive processes. To address the lack of face-to-face interaction and real-time feedback in online learning environments, integrating emotion-recognition systems that analyze facial expressions in real time is recommended. In this regard, the Facial Expression Extraction Module used in the present study (Vonikakis & Winkler, 2021), along with similar open-source algorithms, supports the feasibility of implementing such systems in a cost-effective and accessible manner using standard hardware. This type of integration would enable educators to monitor learners’ momentary affective states during demanding tasks, such as problem-solving (e.g., stress, sustained attention), thereby facilitating the personalization of instructional strategies and timely pedagogical interventions. Future research may further contribute to the design of more responsive online learning environments by leveraging accessible machine-learning models to examine complex affective patterns.

  Facial Expression Analysis in Computer-Assisted Learning Environments During Reading and Problem-Solving Processes · 2026 · DOI

• Although our study did not find a significant relationship between reading comprehension and facial expressions, future research should explore the inclusion of advanced machine learning models to analyze complex emotional patterns and investigate their impact on learning outcomes across various online learning environments. Furthermore, the data in this study were limited by the capabilities of the webcam and algorithm used in the data collection tools.

  Facial Expression Analysis in Computer-Assisted Learning Environments During Reading and Problem-Solving Processes · 2026 · DOI

• Although 16- week intervention period observes significant effects, with five repeated measurement points (baseline plus Weeks 4, 8, long-term 12, 16) characterizing within-semester trajectories, retention effects remain unclear, requiring tracking research evaluation. The 16-week intervention period covers a complete teaching semester and is sufficient to characterize within- semester learning trajectories, while longer-term skill retention and transfer effects remain to be evaluated through follow-up tracking research.

  Can explainable AI scaffolding reduce cognitive load and enhance embodied expression? A quasi-experimental study of multilingual vocal learning in Bel Canto education · 2026 · DOI

• This study was conducted in one Grade 5 classroom with 21 students and used an actionresearch design; its findings should therefore be interpreted as context-specific improvement evidence rather than population-level causal proof. The study did not include a comparison group, longitudinal follow-up, or formal psychometric validation of the questionnaire. Complete Cycle I questionnaire totals were not retained, so only pre-cycle and post-Cycle II questionnaire comparisons are reported. In addition, transcript-level interview records were unavailable and were therefore not used as a separate analytic dataset. Future research should test the proposed pathway across multiple schools, include validated engagement measures, capture student talk systematically, and examine whether enthusiasm gains are accompanied by durable conceptual understanding and more equitable participation patterns.

  Human Centered Interactive Animated Video to Enhance Primary Students' Learning Enthusiasm in Human Digestive System Instruction: A Classroom Action Study in an Indonesian Islamic Elementary School · 2026 · DOI

• Future research is recommended to conduct longitudinal evaluations of learning retention and skill transfer, employ direct cognitive load measurement methods, expand the simulation framework to additional industrial control scenarios, and compare state-machine– based virtual laboratories with alternative modeling approaches to further clarify their relative pedagogical contributions.

  V-LAMOT: A Cognitive-Load Optimized Virtual Lab for Three-Phase Motor Control · 2026 · DOI

• Cognitive load theory (CLT) has been widely validated in core academic subject learning, yet its application to music education remains scarce, and the moderating role of its core construct—element interactivity—in explanation‐based music learning is unexamined.

  The separation of self‐ and instructional explanations in musical knowledge learning · 2026 · DOI

• Five limitations require explicit acknowledgement. Investigator as administrator: the study investigator developed the Cognivia platform, constructed the question bank, and will administer all sessions—a potential source of experimenter expectancy effects, mitigated by pre-specified rubric-based error classification, blind scoring, and audio-recorded fidelity checks. Pilot sample size: n = 30 per group is adequate for effect-size estimation but underpowered for the H2b moderation analysis; no strong confirmatory claims will be made. Rule-based classification: error types are assigned at question design time rather than through free-response analysis; idiosyncratic student reasoning not conforming to pre-specified distractor logic will be misclassified. Mechanism confound: Group A receives both error-type-specific question sequencing and tip delivery; a four-arm design isolating each component is required for future confirmatory work. Single domain and site: NCERT Science in Kanpur Dehat; replication across Mathematics, other states, and other low-resource contexts is required before claims of generalisability.

  The Confusion Fingerprint Index: Cognitive Error Taxonomy as an Adaptive Learning Signal in Learners · 2026 · DOI

• In light of the limited application of CLT principles identified in this study, we recommend that professional training sessions and workshops be conducted to enhance educators’ understanding and implementation of these principles. Specifically, institutions should raise teachers’ awareness of the challenges associated with integrating text and images in PowerPoint presentations through regularly held seminars. Additionally, educational institutions should offer hands-on workshops focused on designing PowerPoint presentations JOURNAL OF EDUCATORS ONLINE that effectively minimize cognitive load. To further support educators, institutions should provide manuals and booklets outlining CLT-based guidelines for effective PowerPoint design. For future research, we recommend exploring teachers’ awareness of CLT principles in PowerPoint design across different educational subjects and projects to identify potential influences. Further investigation into teachers’ profiles could help determine whether specific demographic or professional factors correlate with their understanding of CLT principles. Lastly, we suggest using our developed instrument, which demonstrated high reliability, with larger sample sizes to enhance the generalizability of findings across broader populations.

  Cognitive Load Theory Application in PowerPoint Presentations: An Evaluation Framework from Teachers’ and Learners’ Perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• The primary limitation of this study is its relatively small sample size of teachers. A larger sample could have yielded more accurate results and provided insights from a more diverse group of teachers. Despite the general alignment between teachers’ and students’ perceptions of some tech- niques, significant discrepancies exist for other techniques. Teachers often reported the use of certain techniques more frequently than what stu- dents perceived. These differences may stem from the small sample size of teachers compared to the larger student sample, which reflected the practices of a broader teacher population.

  Cognitive Load Theory Application in PowerPoint Presentations: An Evaluation Framework from Teachers’ and Learners’ Perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• The researcher suggests the following: 1- Applying instructional design based on cognitive load to other educational stages, such as middle and high school. 2- Studying the impact of instructional design on Higher-order thinking skills, such as problem- solving, synthesis, and analysis. 3- Comparing the effectiveness of instructional design in different curricula, such as science and Arabic language. 4- Conducting longitudinal studies to measure the impact of instructional design on students' long-term achievement.

  LEARNING -EDUCATIONAL DESIGN BASED ON THE COGNITIVE BURDEN STRATEGY AND ITS EFFECT IN PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS ACHIEVEMENT TOWARDS MATHEMATICS · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the results and conclusions, the studyer offers the following recommendations: 1- Encourage teachers to adopt instructional-learning designs that reduce cognitive load when teaching mathematics. 2- The necessity of organizing educational content and dividing it into small, progressive units to facilitate learning. 3- Enhancing the use of solved examples and interactive activities in the educational process. 4- Including training programs for teachers on strategies to reduce cognitive load in all subjects. 5- Developing educational materials and supporting learning media that increase cognitive load and reduce the effectiveness of learning. 84 | P a g e Sciental Journal of Education Humanities and Social Sciences, Vol. 4.

  LEARNING -EDUCATIONAL DESIGN BASED ON THE COGNITIVE BURDEN STRATEGY AND ITS EFFECT IN PRIMARY SCHOOL PUPILS ACHIEVEMENT TOWARDS MATHEMATICS · 2026 · DOI

• Different notetaking devices and activities may lead to different embodied, distributed systems of learning (Pea, 1993); further investigation is needed to probe these these aspects can provide suggestions for practice within and beyond the context of asynchronous online learning. Building upon the current study, future studies are needed to examine different forms of notetaking and learning processes using different devices within the complex environment of digital or face-to-face classrooms.

  Taking notes with different writing devices influences learning processes but not performance: an EEG study comparing ink pens, digital pens, and keyboards · 2026 · DOI

• Future research will focus on enhancing context-aware adaptation—such as dynamic content scaling based on learner demo- graphics—and integrating Explainable AI (XAI) to further demystify the generative process.

  PedaCo-Gen: Scaffolding Pedagogical Agency in Human-AI Collaborative Video Authoring · 2026 · DOI

• Implications While we were able to demonstrate differences in task complexity, distinguishing between low- and high-complexity tasks, the highcomplexity tasks were not perceived as extremely complex. Participants indicated an average cognitive load score of around 5 out of 9 when working on high-complexity tasks. Even though the highcomplexity task that we used required participants to assign nine students to six rooms, with eight constraints, more complex alternatives are possible. For example, in the Almaatouq et al. (2023) study, one of the tasks had very high complexity featuring a room assignment task in which 13 persons had to be assigned to 18 rooms using 18 constraints. Future research could investigate whether our findings are Despite the aforementioned limitations and avenues for future research, we can tentatively formulate several educational implications based on our findings. First, it is important to make teachers and instructional designers aware that what works in offline contexts does not necessarily apply to online contexts. Second, when moving to group work, the complexity of the task that students work on should be carefully considered. The results of our study further highlight that having students collaborate on easy versus difficult tasks may not yield the same outcomes.

  Better together? Effects of task complexity and social setting on performance and cognitive load · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of evidence for cheating or AI usage makes the observation of higher R-squared values from the slow-paced quiz method a significant factor in future online course design.

  Study pace reveals differences in online learning using R-squared analysis · 2024 · DOI

• Laboratory experience is critical to foster college students’ collaborative problem-solving (CPS) abilities, but whether students stay cognitively engaged in CPS tasks during online laboratory sessions remains unknown.

  Understanding college students’ cognitive engagement in online collaborative problem-solving: A multimodal data analysis · 2023 · DOI

• While increasing task complexity and developing tasks according to the features of face-to-face and computer-mediated communication modes can optimise L2 production, few studies attend to how the two factors affect learner engagement in task performance–a crucial but under-explored concept contributing to academic achievement.

  Revisiting the Cognition Hypothesis: the impact of task complexity on L2 learner engagement in task performance in computer-mediated and face-to-face communication · 2022 · DOI

• Future Research: Future researchers and practitioners can further evaluate and enhance the importance and design of instructional videos for pedagogical purposes, and additional research is needed before instructors, educators, and the educational field can accept the thought that any video over five or six minutes is considered too long for students’ attention span.

  The Effect of Designing and Segmenting Instructional Video · 2021 · DOI

• In the library and information science (LIS) professions today, deadlines are becoming ever shorter, yet research into the effects of time pressure in LIS is scarce.

  Against the Clock: Speed Training in Library and Information Science Education · 2021 · DOI

• , missing micro or macro events); (iii) research on animated multimedia learning should be replicated with the participant group from K‐12, special education (e.

  A systematic review of <scp>eye‐tracking‐based</scp> research on animated multimedia learning · 2021 · DOI

• To date research within TBLT with children has not explored yet what types of tasks children enjoy working with and why and how task repetition is realised when using tablet devices to record their own performances.

  Agency and technology-mediated task repetition with young learners · 2019 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Visual and Cognitive Learning Processes

• Measurement of Cognitive Load in Instructional Research · Perceptual and Motor Skills · 1994 · 547 citations
• Understanding Cognitive Load in Digital and Online Learning: a New Perspective on Extraneous Cognitive Load · Educational Psychology Review · 2021 · 478 citations
• Exercising your brain: A review of human brain plasticity and training-induced learning. · Psychology and Aging · 2008 · 463 citations
• The Past, Present, and Future of the Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning · Educational Psychology Review · 2024 · 368 citations
• Video Improves Learning in Higher Education: A Systematic Review · Review of Educational Research · 2021 · 281 citations
• Effects of augmented reality on learning and cognitive load in university physics laboratory courses · Computers in Human Behavior · 2020 · 273 citations
• Signaling in virtual reality influences learning outcome and cognitive load · Computers & Education · 2021 · 270 citations
• Enhancing student learning through hypermedia courseware and incorporation of student learning styles · IEEE Transactions on Education · 1999 · 248 citations
• Optimizing schedules of retrieval practice for durable and efficient learning: How much is enough? · Journal of Experimental Psychology General · 2011 · 188 citations
• A Cognitive Load Theory Approach to Defining and Measuring Task Complexity Through Element Interactivity · Educational Psychology Review · 2023 · 178 citations

Most recent work

• Understanding the cognitive cost of multimedia learning: effects of visual load and language proficiency · Cognitive Research Principles and Implications · 2026
• How can students’ engagement with instructional videos on generalizing with algebraic expressions be scaffolded? Design research for specifying the content-specific focus of scaffolds · The Journal of Mathematical Behavior · 2026
• Cognitive Offloading in the Age of Generative AI: What Does It Mean for Students With Learning Disabilities? · Learning Disability Quarterly · 2026
• Understanding the Role of Executive Functions in Academic Skills: A Primer on Measurement and Study Design · Journal of Cognition and Development · 2026
• Enhancing Deep Learning and Workload Management in Online Education: The Power of Scaffolded Weekly Assessments · International journal on teaching and learning in higher education · 2026
• The Impact of Question Scaffolding and Videos on Classroom learning · 2026
• Better together? Effects of task complexity and social setting on performance and cognitive load · Frontiers in Psychology · 2026
• Designing for Cognitive Efficiency · Proceedings of The International Conference on Advanced Research in Teaching and Education · 2026
• The DECADE learning model: Integrating learning theories in mathematics education · Indonesian Journal of Science and Mathematics Education · 2026
• Attentive fidelity and the coordination of attentive and conceptual processes in learning from mathematics videos lessons · Acta Psychologica · 2026

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