Open research questions in Education and Critical Thinking Development

What the literature leaves open

• limitation of this study is the from itself when The main consequence for educational practice is that primary school students can improve their CRT skills through domain- the school interventions planned specific educational curriculum they develop explicit and reflective activities and their effectiveness is evaluated, as exemplified by this study and others (Heffner-Wong et al. This study finds an empirical link between CRT (general domain) and domain-specific variables, which is scarce in the literature (Faye, 2014; Fischer et al.

  Teaching scientific thinking and science literacy in primary: exploring their impact on scientific and critical thinking skills · 2026 · DOI

• in Education 42(4), 232–249. https://dx.doi.org/10.38140/pie. v42i4.7373 Swanepoel, N., 2016, ‘Teaching English reading comprehension to Grade 2 First Additional Language learners’, Masters dissertation, Faculty of Education, University of Pretoria. Swanepoel, N., 2022, ‘Enhancing Grade 3 teachers’ mathematics word problemsolving instruction through professional development initiatives’, Doctoral thesis, University of Johannesburg. Vance, E.A., & Smith, H.S., 2021, ‘Asking great questions: Part of a theory of communication in interdisciplinary collaborations’, JSM Proceedings, pp. 995–1008, viewed 19 June 2025, from https://par.nsf.gov/biblio/10310043 Wallis, C. & Steptoe, S., 2006, ‘How to bring our schools out of the 20th century’, TIME, 18 December, 50–56. Widiana, I.W., Triyono, S., Sudirtha, I.G., Adijaya, M.A. & Wulandari, I.G.A.A.M., 2023, ‘Bloom’s revised taxonomy-oriented learning activity to improve reading interest and creative thinking skills’, Cogent Education 10(2), 2221482. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/2331186X.2023.2221482 Wilkinson, L.C., 2018, ‘Teaching the language of mathematics: What the research tells us teachers need to know and do’, Journal of Mathematics 51, 167–174. https:// doi.org/10.1016/j.jmathb.2018.05.001 Wilkinson, L.C., 2019, ‘Learning language and mathematics: A perspective from linguistics and education’, Linguistics and Education 49, 86–95. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.linged.2018.03.005 Wiranata, D., Widiana, I.W. & Bayu, G.W., 2021, ‘The effectiveness of learning activities based on revised bloom taxonomy on problem-solving ability’, Indonesian Journal Of Educational Research and Review 4(2), 289–298. https://doi.org/10.23887/ ijerr.v4i2.37370 Xu, C., Lafay, A., Douglas, H., Di Lonardo Burr, S., LeFevre, J.A., Osana, H.P. et al., 2022, ‘The role of mathematical language skills in arithmetic fluency and word-problem solving for first-and second-language learners’, Journal of Educational Psychology 114(3), 513. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000673 Zevenbergen, R., 2001, ‘“Cracking code” of mathematics classrooms: School success as a function of linguistic, social and cultural background’, in J. Boaler (ed.), Multiple perspectives on mathematics teaching and learning, pp. 201–223, Ablex Publishing, London.

  Scaffolding word problem-solving instruction: Leveraging critical thinking and mathematics vocabulary · 2026 · DOI

• Therefore, future research is recommended to involve larger and more diverse samples and to use stronger research designs to improve the that may also study has to as the 2025.

  Analysis of the Implementation of a Problem-Based Learning (PBL)-Based IPAS E-Module on Elementary School Students’ Conceptual Understanding and Critical Thinking Skills · 2026 · DOI

• Abstract Despite growing interest in AI-enhanced instruction, the specific contribution of AI to the development of critical thinking within flipped learning environments remains underexplored.

  The effects of AI-assisted flipped learning on critical thinking skills, dispositions, and motivation in higher education · 2026 · DOI

• that construct, represented by pattern recognition, emphasize logical structure, analytical clarity, decomposition, algorithms, and abstraction, and intellectual rigor as essential foundations also exhibited consistent validity indicators of critical thinking (Eragamreddy, 2023). and contributed meaningfully to the overall The strong predictive contribution of CT measurement model. components further reflects global research highlighting decomposition and abstraction as The validated CFA model confirms that central elements of computational reasoning CI, CE, and CT are theoretically and statistically (Handayani et al., 2020). coherent constructs. Strong latent values within the CE construct align with previous studies The relatively weaker predictive effect of emphasizing the importance of creativity and CE on CT is consistent with mixed evidence from digital competence in developing 21st-century prior studies; however, CE remains a meaningful skills (Aini & Aini, 2023; Hamidi et al., 2023; contributor, particularly in learning environments Richado et al., 2023). Likewise, the robustness that require creativity-driven problem-solving of CT indicators supports earlier findings that and innovation. Overall, the structural model computational thinking skills, particularly underscores the importance of cultivating CI and pattern recognition and decomposition, underpin CT through structured cognitive tasks, digital higher-order cognitive reasoning (Adeyemi, literacy development, and authentic, technology- 2021; Changwong et al., 2020; Oyelere et al., supported learning experiences. 2022).

  The Model of Critical, Creative, and Computational Thinking Among Pre-Service Teachers in Indonesia and Malaysia · 2026 · DOI

• The study’s most distinctive contribution lies in identifying the erosion of inquiry motivation and internalized cognitive conflict as underexplored dimensions of AI use.

  Generative AI and critical thinking in higher education · 2026 · DOI

• Students’ narratives further indicate that cognitive offloading is becoming normalized, with AI increasingly assuming the role of sustained reasoning, while the coexistence of reliance and self-awareness suggests that awareness alone is insufficient to mitigate dependency.

  Generative AI and critical thinking in higher education · 2026 · DOI

• Students’ narratives further indicate that cognitive offloading is becoming normalized, with AI increasingly assuming the role of sustained reasoning, while the coexistence of reliance and self-awareness suggests that awareness alone is insufficient to mitigate dependency.

  Generative AI and critical thinking in higher education · 2026 · DOI

• The limitations of this study include the scope of the literature, as it analyzed only 20 articles published between 2015 and 2025 in English or Indonesian, excluding studies in other languages or those from non-indexed journals, which may limit comprehensiveness.

  A Systematic Literature Review on the Impact of Reading Literacy on Students’ Critical Thinking Skills in Vocational Education · 2026 · DOI

• Avcı and Coşkun (2022), as well as Esemen and Sadioğlu (2021), revealed that texts in Turkish textbooks were largely limited to the function of transmitting information and lacked activities that would prompt students to discuss alternative perspectives. Likewise, the study by Demir and Baş (2019) emphasized that the questions in textbooks were insufficient in activating students’ higher-order thinking processes.

  An Evaluation of the Literary Texts in the 5th Grade Turkish Textbook within the Scope of the Türkiye Century Education Model in Terms of Critical Thinking Skills · 2026 · DOI

• Research Limitations This study has several limitations: 1) The sample is limited to two schools in one district, so generalization should be done with caution; 2) The research material is limited to the topic of science (reproduction of living things); 3) The development of E-Comics in this study still needs the use of augmented reality or advanced interactive features.

  Integrating E-Comics and Problem-Based Learning (PBL) to Foster Higher-Order Thinking Skills in Elementary Students · 2026 · DOI

• Increasing collaborations (universities, NGOs, private organizations) HEM-T1, HEM-T2, HEM-T10, HEM-T11 Implementing a flexible program HEM-T2, HEM-T4…

  HAREZMI EDUCATION MODEL IN PRIMARY MATHEMATICS EFFECTS ON PROBLEM-SOLVING AND CRITICAL THINKING · 2026 · DOI

• The limitations of this study lie in the expansion of the model to include mediating variables such as learning motivation and digital literacy of the teachers to improve its predictive power. Students who rely on limited data plans may engage less frequently or less deeply with interactive, media-rich content (such as augmented reality), thus reducing the potential benefits of technology on language outcomes.

  Integrating Local Wisdom and Technology to Foster Language Competence: A Study on Sasirangan-Based Learning in High Schools · 2026 · DOI

• Furthermore, since the study was conducted among a close-knit group of ethnically similar students, results may not be generalizable to more diverse populations. Firstly, as the sample consisted of midwifery students enrolled at a national university in southern Turkey, the generalizability of the findings is limited.

  The Impact of Case-Based Learning on Critical Thinking Motivation, Academic Motivation, and Knowledge Acquisition Among Undergraduate Midwifery Students: A Randomised Controlled Trial · 2026 · DOI

• This study provides empirical evidence from a region where research on the 4Cs competencies remains limited, offering insight into the challenges of implementing competency-based teacher education. The findings indicate that, although students recognize the importance of the 4Cs competencies (Idrizović & Dedić Bukvić, 2024), university instruction does not fully support their balanced development. However, the study relies on students’ self-reported perceptions, which may be subject to bias. Therefore, future research should incorporate analyses of program objectives and learning outcomes, direct classroom observations, and interviews with instructors to triangulate the findings. The instrument used 359 Džejla Idrizović & Emina Dedić Bukvić in this study is of a preliminary nature. Accordingly, future research should consider further refinement and item reduction to minimize potential redundancy and to enhance the instrument’s psychometric robustness. Given the limitations of the study, particularly the reliance on student self-reports and the descriptive nature of the research design, the findings cannot be generalized as indicators of the actual level of 4Cs competency development. Rather, they should be interpreted as insights into students’ perceptions of instructional practices within the examined context. Authors’ Contributions Both authors contributed equally to all aspects of this study.

  4Cs Model in Initial Teacher Education: Fostering and Developing 4Cs Competencies in Higher Education Teaching · 2026 · DOI

• 59–78. Život of https://doi.org/10.32903/zs.70.2.4 pedagogues]. LXX(2), škola, i Chiruguru, S. (2020). The essential skills of 21st century classroom (4Cs). Project: The role of 4Cs (critical thinking, creative thinking, collaboration and communication) in the 21st century classroom. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.36190.59201 Chi, D. N. (2022). Vietnamese EFL students’ critical thinking in an English literature 77–94.

  4Cs Model in Initial Teacher Education: Fostering and Developing 4Cs Competencies in Higher Education Teaching · 2026 · DOI

• Suggestions stemming from this research include integrating SBL into curriculum design across all disciplines, providing teacher professional development in SBL approaches, placing priority on technological integration in the teaching practice, developing rigorous assessment plans in conjunction with SBL, and advocating for further research on the long-term effect of SBL on student learning.

  A Pathway Beyond Conventional Methods: Developing Critical Thinking in EMI Students Through Scenario-Based Learning · 2026 · DOI

• Furthermore, studies examining Wayground-assisted HOTS assessment tools within the Office Management and Business Services (MPLB) program remain scarce.

  PENGEMBANGAN INSTRUMEN PENILAIAN TES HOTS BERBANTUAN WAYGROUND PADA ELEMEN TEKNIK DASAR AKTIVITAS PERKANTORAN DI BIDANG MPLB · 2026 · DOI

• Introduction Artificial intelligence (AI), also referred to as machine intelligence, is a specialized field within computer science. It focuses on comprehending the nature of intelligence and creating innovative, intelligent machines that mimic, enhance, and augment human intelligence. The advancement of AI has led to numerous innovations and improve- ments that have influenced various aspects of human existence. Education, being a cru- cial element of societal progress and personal growth, has greatly benefited from these AI developments (Kamalov et al., 2023). In this study, we treat AI as an umbrella term that includes a range of applications (e.g., intelligent tutoring systems, feedback tools, recommendation and retrieval systems), while giving particular analytical attention to generative AI systems such as large language models (LLMs). Generative AI refers to probabilistic machine-learning models that produce novel text, images, or other media by learning patterns from large corpora (e.g., ChatGPT) (Moorhouse & Wong, 2025). When we refer specifically to this subset, we use the term “generative AI” or “LLMs”; © The Author(s) 2026. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the mate- rial. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/. Kamali et al. Asian. J. Second. Foreign. Lang. Educ. (2026) 11:28 Page 2 of 21 when we use “AI” more broadly, this reflects the way participants themselves often spoke about “AI” alongside other AI-mediated and data-driven technologies. The study of AI necessitates integrating knowledge from various disciplines, including computer science, mathematics, sociology, psychology, and philosophy (Huang & Qiao, 2022). The use of AI in education signifies not just a technological improvement but also a fundamental shift towards more personalized and adaptive learning experiences. How- ever, despite its potential advantages, the incorporation of AI in educational settings presents notable challenges (Kamali et al., 2024a). A primary concern is the cultivation of Critical Thinking (CT) skills among instructors and students, especially in environ- ments where traditional educational practices are still dominant (Liu & Wang, 2024b). Engaging with AI can significantly enhance instructors’ and students’ CT skills as they explore AI applications and assess their real-world implications and ethical considera- tions. (Huang & Qiao, 2022). In our rapidly changing, technology-driven society, CT is essential for instructors and students to evaluate the extensive information available, make informed choices, and tackle the intricate challenges posed by swift technological progress, including advancements in AI (Li et al., 2024; Liu & Wang, 2024a). Accord- ing to Popenici and Kerr (2017), as advanced as AI solutions may become, a future where algorithms can replace the complexity of the human mind and CT cannot yet be envisaged. To examine this, this research aims to explore how AI- and generative-AI–supported instructional environments influence the development of CT skills among higher educa- tion language instructors. It seeks to identify specific features of AI tools that enhance or hinder these skills. By investigating the impact of AI on CT skills, this research can pro- vide valuable insights for instructors and higher education institutions on the integration of AI technologies into curricula. Furthermore, this study aims to evaluate how instruc- tors’ perceptions and experiences with AI technologies shape their integration into the classroom and their effectiveness in fostering CT. In effect, it seeks to understand the barriers and facilitators that teachers face regarding their use of CT when adopting AI tools.

  Exploring the impact of AI on language instructors’ critical thinking abilities: Insights from higher education · 2026 · DOI

• 72 https://ojs.myeduheart.com/index.php/arje EduHeart Knowledge Network and Publishing, Inc. DOI: https://doi.org/10.66206/eduheart.2026.336 Asian Research Journal of Education, 2026 E-ISSN: 3028-0842 P-ISSN: 3028-0834 Vol. 3 No. 3 Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are proposed: 1. Strengthen the integration of creativity-focused strategies within student-centered learning (SCL) to address the weakest competency domain, so that students develop originality and innovation alongside collaboration and critical thinking. 2. Provide continuous professional development and training programs for teachers, emphasizing differentiated instruction and active learning approaches. Such training will sustain high levels of SCL implementation and broaden its impact across all HCC domains. 3. Encourage school leaders to institutionalize SCL practices across curricula, ensuring consistency in implementation. Embedding SCL structurally will prevent variability and ensure equitable learning experiences across classrooms. 4. Develop and implement a six-week capacity-building program to enhance teacher practice and support the integration of SCL strategies with HCC development. This the program directly addresses underutilization of creativity-focused strategies. identified, particularly instructional gaps the 5. Conduct further research on the relationship between SCL strategies and HCC in diverse international school contexts to validate and extend findings of this study. Replication across other international school settings in Southeast Asia would strengthen the evidence base and inform broader application of student-centered approaches. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The researcher gives all glory and honor to God Almighty, whose guidance, wisdom, and sustaining grace made this study possible. Deep gratitude is extended to the thesis adviser, Dr. Angelou O. Ramos, for his invaluable support and mentorship. Appreciation is also offered to the school administrators and teacher-respondents of the selected international schools in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, for their cooperation and participation. The researcher likewise acknowledges the encouragement and fellowship of her life group friends, whose prayers provided strength throughout the research journey. Finally, heartfelt thanks are expressed to her family, whose love, understanding, and unwavering support sustained her through the challenges of completing this work. AI DECLARATION STATEMENT AI-supported tools helped with grammar and structure in creating this article. No AI tools were used to collect, analyze, or interpret data; all authors are credited for their academic contributions.

  Bridging Pedagogy and Skills: Student-Centered Learning and Human-Centered Competencies in International Schools In Phnom Penh, Cambodia · 2026 · DOI

• This study is limited to a single kindergarten context, which may restrict the generalizability of findings. The qualitative design focuses on in-depth understanding rather than measurement of impact. In addition, the short observation period may not fully capture the long-term development of critical thinking skills. Future studies are recommended to involve multiple institutions and longer observation durations. 5. CONCLUSION The study indicates that implementing the deep learning pedagogical approach supports the development of early childhood critical thinking at Aisyiyah Bustanul Athfal 26 Kindergarten, Malang. Children showed observable progress in questioning, offering simple reasons, and solving basic problems through play-based, experience-driven learning activities. These findings suggest that structured, child-centered learning can encourage more active and reflective engagement. The main contribution of this study is in provide empirical evidence on how deep learning can be operationalized in early childhood classrooms, particularly by transforming teacher roles from instructors to facilitators who guide exploration and inquiry. However, this study is limited to a single institutional context, uses a qualitative design, and has a relatively short observation period, which may limit broader generalizability. Future research is recommended to involve multiple settings and longerterm observations to examine the sustainability of critical thinking development and to refine assessment strategies for young children. Overall, the findings highlight the potential of deep learning as a pedagogical approach in early childhood education, while emphasizing the need for careful implementation aligned with children’s developmental characteristics. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We would like to express our deepest gratitude to all parties who contributed to this research. We want to thank our colleagues who provided advice, support, and inspiration throughout the research process. We would also like to thank all participants and respondents who took the time to participate in this research. We would also like to thank the institutions that provided support and facilities for conducting this research. All contributions and assistance were invaluable to the smooth running and success of this research. Thank you for all your hard work and collaboration. REFERENCES J. J. Gea, D. Diana, and K. Aeni, “Holistic-Integrative Early Childhood Education and Its Impact on Social-Emotional, Physical, and Cognitive Development: A Multi-Regional Regression Analysis,” Golden Age: Jurnal Ilmiah Tumbuh Kembang Anak Usia Dini, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 163–171, 2025. A.

  Implementing Deep Learning to Enhance Critical Thinking Skills in Early Childhood: A Qualitative Study at Aisyiyah Bustanul Athfal 26 Kindergarten, Malang · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the conclusions, the researcher recommends designing an action plan to address the challenges teachers face in fully implementing the SOLO- HOTS approach among grade 10 students. There should be an orientation and introduction of SOLO-HOTS in the classroom so that students are familiar with and aware of this concept. There should also be programs, projects, and activities to help teachers develop test items that will develop HOTS among students, even though there is limited time, and to help students engage in reading to develop comprehension and analysis.

  IMPLEMENTATION OF SOLO-HOTS APPROACH AMONG GRADE 10 STUDENTS: BASIS FOR ACTION PLAN · 2026 · DOI

• While the paper identifies that truth-seeking and open-mindedness dispositions moderate CT quality in intercultural contexts, it does not investigate how to systematically cultivate or measure these dispositions during project-based EFL instruction, nor how disposition-level interventions might prevent inference from hardening into untested assumptions without external feedback. Research examining pedagogical conditions that sustain open-mindedness and truth-seeking across extended project phases is needed.

  Critical thinking subskills in project-based EFL learning: uneven salience and conditional activation · 2026 · DOI

• The study demonstrates that assessment rubrics foregrounding technical features (image clarity, grammatical accuracy, slide count) cause evaluation to recede into procedural compliance rather than engaging with cultural content, yet does not provide empirical comparison of rubric designs that explicitly foreground cultural appropriateness versus those that remain technically focused. Comparative analysis of how different rubric structures shape the salience and quality of critical thinking subskills in intercultural EFL projects is needed.

  Critical thinking subskills in project-based EFL learning: uneven salience and conditional activation · 2026 · DOI

• Existing literature attributes gains in comparing cultural perspectives and evaluating cultural values in EFL tasks to critical thinking activation, but the present findings suggest this relationship is conditional rather than inherent. No prior studies have empirically investigated the specific conditions under which CT processes support versus constrain intercultural communicative competence goals, or developed predictive models of when inference and evaluation slip from anticipatory perspective-taking into overgeneralized cultural assumption.

  Critical thinking subskills in project-based EFL learning: uneven salience and conditional activation · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Education and Critical Thinking Development

• THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEARNING CONCEPTION, STUDY STRATEGY AND LEARNING OUTCOME · British Journal of Educational Psychology · 1984 · 321 citations
• Leveraging ChatGPT for Enhancing Critical Thinking Skills · Journal of Chemical Education · 2023 · 211 citations
• Does College Teach Critical Thinking? A Meta-Analysis · Review of Educational Research · 2015 · 207 citations
• Critical thinking in the AI era: An exploration of EFL students’ perceptions, benefits, and limitations · Cogent Education · 2023 · 202 citations
• The influence of AI text generators on critical thinking skills in UK business schools · Studies in Higher Education · 2024 · 177 citations
• Effects of problem-based learning instructional intervention on critical thinking in higher education: A meta-analysis · Thinking Skills and Creativity · 2022 · 161 citations
• Constructivism learning theory: A paradigm for students’ critical thinking, creativity, and problem solving to affect academic performance in higher education · Cogent Education · 2023 · 132 citations
• Systematic review of problem based learning research in fostering critical thinking skills · Thinking Skills and Creativity · 2023 · 123 citations
• Sharpening a tool for teaching: the zone of proximal development · Teaching in Higher Education · 2014 · 116 citations
• Metacognition and Critical Thinking: Using ChatGPT-Generated Responses as Prompts for Critique in a Problem-Solving Workshop (SMARTCHEMPer) · Journal of Chemical Education · 2023 · 102 citations

Most recent work

• Research Hotspots and Future Trends of Critical Thinking in English Language Education: A Bibliometric Analysis of WoS and Scopus Database · International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development · 2026
• Beyond the Basics: Moving ChatGPT from Task Manager to Thought Partner in Health and Physical Education Settings · Journal of Physical Education Recreation & Dance · 2026
• The ethical frontier: ChatGPT’s cultural impact on academic practices · Innovations in Education and Teaching International · 2026
• Improving Critical Thinking Skills through a Flipped Project-Based Learning Model Integrated with Mockup Media and Augmented Reality · The Electronic Journal of e-Learning · 2026
• Nurses as Emotional Critical-System Thinkers: Integrating emotional intelligence, critical thinking, and systems thinking in nursing education · Teaching and learning in nursing · 2026
• A Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) Analysis of ChatGPT in Academic Help-Seeking · International journal on teaching and learning in higher education · 2026
• The effect of augmented reality game-based learning on students’ critical thinking disposition and academic achievement · Journal of Technology and Science Education · 2026
• Bhinneka Framework: A Holistic Approach to Enhance Critical Thinking in Engineering Education · Open Education Studies · 2026
• Impact of ChatGPT on learning outcomes and performance of students in computer programming courses: a mixed-method approach · Discover Education · 2026
• Critical Thinking Disposition of Prospective Mathematics Teacher in Solving Mathematics problem · International Journal of Education and Teaching Zone · 2026

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