Open research questions in Early Childhood Education and Development

What the literature leaves open

• In addition, the limitations of this study lie in the relatively narrow coverage of the area and the cross-sectional design, so the generalization of the results needs to be done carefully. ADVANCED RESEARCH Future studies are recommended to examine the long-term impact of integrated teacher support systems on early childhood outcomes using longitudinal designs.

  Integrated Teacher Support Systems for Enhancing Behavioral and Cognitive Development in Preschool Institutions · 2026 · DOI

• It is imperative for educators to comprehend the critical role of academic literacy and to actively foster its development in both HL and EFAL. To further this aim, the formulation of vocabulary lists for Life Skills and Mathematics is recommended, with an emphasis on instruction in both the Home Language and English First Additional Language. In addition to vocabulary enhancement, it is fundamental to systematically develop background knowledge on topics pertaining to Life Skills and Beginning Knowledge. Establishing this foundational knowledge will empower learners to achieve a deeper comprehension of texts in both their HL and EFAL. Furthermore, extensive reading practices will substantially contribute to the acquisition of this background knowledge. It is also essential to strengthen reading skills within both HL and EFAL to enhance overall efficacy and facilitate the transfer of effective reading strategies. To improve learner outcomes, a concerted and collaborative effort should be directed towards: More effectively aligning the curricula of the Foundation Phase and Intermediate Phase. Providing structured and sustained support to educators for the instruction of EFAL literacy. Considering a gradual or bilingual transition to English as the LoLT. Actively engaging families and community stakeholders in promoting and supporting early literacy initiatives. Strengthen the development of writing and enhance learners' skills in English grammar, spelling, and punctuation, while facilitating the transfer of writing strategies from one context to another, from home language to First Additional Language, ensuring that learners get practice in writing non-fiction texts and creating visual texts.

  Teacher perceptions of Literacy Pedagogical practices on learner transition: The case of Grade 3- 4 EFAL in Oliver Reginald Tambo Inland District, Eastern Cape, South Africa · 2026 · DOI

• In contemporary curriculum studies, textbooks are no longer regarded as neutral instructional tools but as key mediators between curriculum policy and classroom practice. Recent scholarship emphasises that textbooks significantly shape teachers’ interpretations of curriculum goals, learning priorities, and pedagogical approaches, thereby influencing everyday teaching practices (Williamson, 2020; Smith & Thompson, 2021). Williamson (2020) conceptualises curriculum materials as policy enactment texts, arguing that textbooks not only convey policy intentions but also structure and constrain teachers’ instructional their organisation, content choices selection, and pedagogical cues.

  Textual Analysis of Preschool Education Textbooks in Tanzania · 2026 · DOI

• It was recommended based on the following; • Caregivers need to make the judicious and constant use of the available outdoor spaces in a way that will improve the social skills of the children. • School proprietors and administrators should ensure provision and efficient use of a conducive outdoor environment in a way that still preserves much of the natural environment • Further studies are needed to find out the interaction effects of the moderator variable school yard pedagogy. Suggested on moderator variables include school location, school type, cultural beliefs, and so on. Cortázar, A., Molina, M.D., Sélman, J., & Manosalva, A. (2020). Early Childhood Education Effects on School Outcomes: Academic Achievement, Grade Retention and School Drop Out. Early Education and Development, 31, 376 - 394. Dere, Z. (2019).

  Effects of Bi-Modal Schoolyard Pedagogy and Gender on Social Process Skills of Preschool Children in Oyo State, Nigeria · 2026 · DOI

• i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. ix. x. xi. xii. xiii. Provide early childhood courses based on low-cost, -appropriate science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (STEAM) kit. On the foundations of the STEAM-based instruction and the practical design thinking and inquiry-based learning, which will be age-specific, the professional learning plans should be developed (Bybee, 2013; Su, 2025). Create peer learning communities or so-called STEAM Learning Circles, during which the teachers will have the possibility to discuss lesson plans and share classroom experiences and jointly create the activities that will be applicable in the ECCE context. Implement STEAM units to pre-service teachers in preparation of future teachers with the primary foundations of interdisciplinary education. Integrate national and institutional Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) curriculum with the science, technology, engineering, arts and mathematics (STEAM) education. Encourage transdisciplinary learning initiatives in which courses are co-located on significant themes in life like: Nature and Sustainability or Community and Innovation. Introduce arts and cultural expression as the core of teaching process of STEAM, in such a way that children can learn to apply their imagination, emotions, and taste of the beauty (Bequette & Bequette, 2012; Maeda, 2013). Present early age learning materials, manipulatives, and technological accessible resources which support in ECCE classroom exploration and experimenting (Amanova, 2025). Promote elementary schools to establish STEAM maker spaces or discovery laboratories in which children may use directed inquiry by using constructive materials, experimentation, and creativity. Collaborate with universities and other science centres and art institutions in the area that will offer practical learning and resource trade. The policy-makers need to concentrate on the policy of STEAM introduction to the early childhood care and education, devote appropriate funds to the training of the teachers, development of the materials and for conduction of pilot programs. Create monitoring and evaluation teams in order to determine the efficiency of the inclusion of STEAM programs in ECE and determine the most effective grading practices. Train administrative leaders, who should be capable of learning the academic utility of STEAM and offer institutional support on a long-term basis.

  “Beyond Play: Reimagining Early Childhood Classrooms through STEAM Integration” · 2026 · DOI

• As per the model proposed by the study (Figure 1), the parent’s conception of TfKtPS is modifiable because the relationships between individual dimensions of the model is not unidirectionally linear but instead interactively cyclic. Each dimension has its own irreplaceable role, and any change in one dimension can make a difference to other core dimensions within the interactive trajectory. All the dimensions are interwoven and mutually reinforcing without a fixed and mechanical procedure. The complexity of the mechanism is also reflected in the relationship between parental perspectives on education and the temporal and societal contexts. New perspectives emerge as the times move forward, and old ones may be resurrected from time to time. The establishment of scientific educational notions involves ongoing comparisons between cutting-edge and outdated ideas. SIEF, Vol.32, No.1, 2026 5183 Zhang. (China). Parent’s Conception of Child Transition from Kindergarten to Primary School. Encouraging Innovation in Home-Kindergarten Collaboration Practices Research on home-school collaboration in the literature reveals that school teachers typically dominate the process with parents basically playing supporting roles (Zhang et al., 2018; Baeck, 2010). The majority of the interviewees in this study deemed themselves as passive participants of homeschool collaboration programs and misunderstood the collaboration as their involvement in child homework completion. Interviewee 11’s involvement in home-school collaboration was somewhat exceptional. As a member of the parent committee, he actively participated in observing kindergarten education and teaching activities and offered insights and suggestions to the kindergarten, which gave him feedback in a timely manner and adopted some of his suggestions. Timely feedback, communication on an equal footing, and parents’ senses of participation and achievement from making valuable suggestions are promotive factors in the establishment of ideal homekindergarten relations. Furthermore, in developing the study’s theoretical model, the author determined that the parent’s evaluations of the kindergarten’s work are a key factor related to their conception of TfKtPS. Thus, the kindergarten’s effort to improve parents' satisfaction with its TfKtPS education and gain positive comments from them is crucial for upgrading their understanding of TfKtPS. Relevant research also supports that the kindergarten and its teachers’ TfKtPS efforts have significant impacts on parental involvement in the transitional process (Besi & Sakellariou, 2019; Lietavcova et al., 2018). Teachers’ attitudes towards home-school collaboration make much difference to parental engagement (Prime et al., 2021). Hence, it is important for the kindergarten to innovate home-kindergarten collaboration patterns, allowing parents to participate as genuine partners in the child’s preschool education. This can encourage understanding of and support for the kindergarten’s TfKtPS work in parents, win their recognition of the TfKtPS activities organized by the teachers, increase their acceptance of the kindergarten’s home education guidance initiatives, and ultimately prompt the upgrading of their conception of TfKtPS. Engaging Primary Schools in TfKtPS Education Parents’ worry about their child’s future performance in the primary school is partially due to their inadequate and inaccurate understanding of primary education. There is a dearth of collaboration, including information sharing, between the kindergarten and primary school aimed at facilitating the TfKtPS, with both of them having incomplete, superficial knowledge of each other’s education (Lin et al., 2003). Parents cannot obtain reliable infor- SIEF, Vol.32, No.1, 2026 5184 Zhang. (China). Parent’s Conception of Child Transition from Kindergarten to Primary School. mation about primary education through official channels, thus unable to judge the differences between kindergarten and primary school. This disconnected information flow has caused parents significant pressure and anxiety. Therefore, it is important to engage both kindergartens and primary schools as key actors in the transition process. Primary schools have the responsibility to offer their advice for proper TfKtPS education, actively collaborating with kindergartens to ensure a scientific pattern of transition.

  Grounded Theory Analysis of the Parent’s Conception of Child Transition from Kindergarten to Primary School: An Interaction Mechanism of the Influencing Factors · 2026 · DOI

• The study provides important information for policymakers and child care providers on how and which quality development measures at organisational level are related to process quality. Against the background of limited financial and time resources in day care centres in Germany (and presumably also in other nations and cultures), the 44  KLUCZNIOK ET AL. / Process Quality and Quality Development Measures in Day Care Centres focus should therefore be on those measures that are demonstrably effective in improving quality. According to our findings, it is important to focus on quality issues in team exchanges and advisory contexts, as well as on involving the entire team. One starting point would be for management to enable the involvement of additional experts in the centres to support the professionals in their educational work. Moreover, resources should also be made available so that the entire team – including management – can regularly work on concepts and quality. One guideline might be that there be at least one working session per month, intended and designed first to initiate the process with the team, then to work on it continuously – and finally to complete it successfully.

  Assessing the Relations Between Process Quality and Quality Development Measures in Early Child Care · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could explore additional multimodal methods, such as visual choice boards, emotion cards, and video review with children, to further honour children’s agency. This expands the possibilities for practitioner enquiry in an understudied field and suggests future research directions, such as the longitudinal impact of digital relationships, scalability across greater disparities including age gaps and cognitive differences, and the professional learning support that teachers need to implement inclusive digital practices.

  BuildingBridgesAcrossDistance:ALiving EducationalTheoryofDigitalInclusionin GreekEarlyChildhoodSpecialEducation · 2026 · DOI

• As the study was designed to explore the usefulness of recipro- cal parenting seminars and school staff resources in primary schooling, further research is warranted to explore its gen- eralisability to secondary schooling—given that research has found that family-school engagement typically differs in secondary school contexts (Berkowitz et al.

  Exploring School Staff Perspectives on Brief, School-Based Parenting Seminars with a Reciprocal School Staff Component: Implications for Home-School Partnerships · 2026 · DOI

• However, such studies remain scarce even among older children (see Koğar, 2021 for another example among secondary school stu- dents) and future research should address this gap. In this context, examining parental factors such as parenting practices and parental involvement warrants further investigation (Daniel et al.

  Reducing educational inequalities through metacognition? Evidence from a classroom intervention in kindergarten · 2026 · DOI

• First, as an exploratory investigation, it did not account for certain factors that may influence DLLs’ social competence, such as children’s personality traits. There- fore, the findings should be interpreted as context-specific, and the perceptions and experiences reported in this study may not be generalizable to broader populations.

  Do We Align? Parents’ and Teachers’ Perceptions of Dual Language Learners’ Social Competence in Preschool · 2026 · DOI

• Recommendation 1: Establish a national framework for information sharing between primary and secondary schools.

  A Mixed-methods Study of How to Improve Primary-secondary Transitions in England: Combining Academic Research with Policy and Practice Consultation · 2026 · DOI

• Observations Observation was employed to obtain direct evidence regarding children's emotional behaviors and teachers’ implementation of the digital assessment model. The researcher conducted non-participant observations during learning activities. Observational data focused on two primary aspects: 1. Children's emotional readiness behaviors, including emotional recognition, classroom emotional regulation, self-control, confidence, and self-esteem. 2. Teachers’ interaction with the digital assessment application, including ease of use, navigation, scoring procedures, and report generation. Observation data were recorded using structured observation sheets developed from emotional readiness indicators identified in the literature. Table 2.

  Development of a Digital Assessment Model for Evaluating Early Childhood Emotional Readiness for Elementary School Entry · 2026 · DOI

• Firstly, the author recommends that all relevant stakeholders urgently acknowledge the roles and place of community-based ECCE practitioners in the much-discussed transformation of rural and disadvantaged communities in South Africa and other countries. Secondly, the author also recommends that the Department of Basic Education and all other relevant non-government organizations prioritize the provision of relevant professional development programs for the ECCE workforce in disadvantaged communities. The author suggests establishing a specialized unit at the district level to mandate workable modalities to promote effective professional development in the ECCE sector in disadvantaged communities. Moreover, given the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, as evidenced by lockdowns and isolation measures that further isolated disadvantaged communities, it becomes imperative for the government and NGOs to increase resources to equip such communities and support the professional development of ECCE practitioners. The COVID-19 pandemic made it imperative to develop professional development programs suitable for practitioners to work in the post-COVID-19 era.

  Professional development opportunities for early years’ practitioners in disadvantaged communities · 2026 · DOI

• Because recruitment depended on institutional distribution processes and voluntary par- ticipation, the sample cannot be considered statistically representative of the entire popu- lation of ECE professionals in Finland. Rather, it represents a geographically diverse but self-selected sample of professionals working in municipalities that agreed to participate. Municipalities or educators with a particular interest in CDT-related practices may be likely to participate. Furthermore, because the exact number of educators who received the survey link is unknown, a precise response rate cannot be calculated. Accordingly, the findings should be interpreted as indicative rather than nationally representative, and conclusions should be limited to the participating sample. Additionally, only one-third of the participants were qualified ECE teachers who had studied CDT pedagogy as part of their university edu- cation. ECE teachers are primarily responsible for planning pedagogical activities, ensuring their systematic and goal-oriented implementation, and evaluating and developing these activities in Finnish ECE. However, all ECE team members must collaborate in planning and implementing education. Funding Open access funding provided by University of Eastern Finland (including Kuopio University Hos- pital). The Finnish Cultural Foundation and the North Karelia Regional Fund supported this research through a grant for the doctoral dissertation for the first author.

  Craft, design, and technology education in Finnish early childhood education: Professionals’ perceptions of implementation · 2026 · DOI

• Integrate Play-Based Learning into Daily Instruction. Social Constructivism emphasises that children build knowledge through meaningful interaction with their environment. Incorporating guided and free play gives learners opportunities to explore, experiment, and discover new ideas. Through play, children negotiate meaning, interact with peers, and solve problems, which aligns with the constructivist belief that learning is an active and experience-driven process. Strengthen Collaborative and Interactive Learning. Vygotsky’s view of Social Constructivism highlights learning as a social activity where children grow through interactions with peers and more knowledgeable individuals. Encouraging pair work, group tasks, and hands-on experiences enables learners to share ideas, support one another, and co-construct knowledge within their Zone of Proximal Development. Such collaboration and enhances engagement, reinforcing the theory’s emphasis on social interaction. communication, empathy, Create a Stimulating and Flexible Learning Environment. Social Constructivist theory values learning environments that offer rich opportunities for exploration. Providing well-equipped indoor and outdoor spaces gives children varied materials and experiences that encourage discovery and creativity. A flexible environment supports children in making choices, engaging in hands-on activities, and deepening through interaction with materials and peers.

  Promoting Active Learning among Pre-Primary School Learners: Evidence from Kabale District, Uganda · 2026 · DOI

• philosophical The evolution of ECE has been shaped by historical emphasising and experiential learning. Friedrich Fröbel, known as the "father of kindergarten," introduced structured play and child-friendly learning spaces (Fröbel, 1887). Maria Montessori further advanced a childcentred, hands-on approach that encouraged independence and active engagement (Montessori, 1912; Saha & Adhikari, 2023).

  Promoting Active Learning among Pre-Primary School Learners: Evidence from Kabale District, Uganda · 2026 · DOI

• The following recommendations, if implemented, will not only improve inclusivity in the ECE field but also enhance the learning environment for children by providing them with diverse role models. 1. Governments, agencies, organizations, and other stakeholders should raise awareness about the positive impact of men’s involvement in early childhood education. While women are excelling in this field, men can bring unique behaviours and perspectives that complement women’s efforts, serving as positive role models for children. The campaign should emphasize the importance of diversity in caregiving roles and showcase male role models in ECE to inspire more men to join the field. 2. Governments and employers should offer incentives, such as financial bonuses, promotions, and sponsorships to attend professional events, to retain the few men already working in early childhood education and sustain the interest of the women in the field. Additionally, scholarships or bursaries should be provided to those currently studying or considering a career in early childhood education, helping to attract more men to this profession. Financial assistance, including grants, scholarships, and loans, would address some of the financial barriers that deter men from entering the field. By offering adequate funding and support, we can encourage more men to pursue careers in early childhood education. 3. Early childhood and family resource centres, as well as elementary schools, should improve their policies to support male educators with families by offering flexible hours and enhanced paternity leave options. Efforts should also be made to recruit men with ECE qualifications to create balanced gender representation, promote male engagement in diverse caregiving roles, and establish leadership positions that appeal to male educators. These initiatives could encourage more men to join the field. 4. Employers, educational institutions, and professional organizations should collaborate actively to reduce gender bias against men in caregiving roles. Gender sensitivity training should be provided to families and the wider community to address stereotypes and emphasize the educational benefits of male educators rather than perceived risks. It is essential to foster supportive workplaces in childcare centres and schools, promoting understanding that safeguarding practices protect all children, not only from male caregivers. These efforts can help create inclusive environments that encourage more men to pursue ECE careers. 5. Support networks and mentorship programs should be established to connect young male practitioners and male students in the field with experienced male mentors. Through these connections, men can gain confidence, learn how others have overcome similar challenges, and find the strength to succeed.

  Addressing the Underrepresentation of Men in Early Childhood Education: Perspectives, Barriers, and Instructional Design Solutions · 2026 · DOI

• There are a few limitations to consider when interpreting the results of this study. First, all participants in this study were white women. This means this study is missing insights from teachers of color and male teachers who may have dif- ferent experiences with trauma and trauma-informed care, which would impact their trauma-informed attitudes and practices. Future research can make more targeted efforts to recruit diverse ECSE teachers. Additionally, self-selection bias may have impacted this study, as those who chose to participate may be more informed about trauma and trauma- informed care, thereby having higher trauma-informed attitudes and using trauma-informed practices. Finally, participants’ survey scores may be inaccurate due to social desirability bias. Despite these limitations, the findings from this study add key information to the literature base about how teachers’ trauma-informed attitudes and practices come together to implement trauma-informed care in ECSE.

  The Trauma-Informed Attitudes and Practices of Early Childhood Special Education Teachers: A Mixed Methods Exploration · 2026 · DOI

• However, while CT is central to CS education, there is a gap in the literature on how CT emerges and develops in early childhood with limited research on how CT is taught in early childhood classroomsObjective The purpose of this study was to uncover what early childhood teachers learned about CT and how they integrated CT in their classrooms after participating in a yearlong professional development program.

  A year of learning: early childhood teachers’ computational learning and implementation while participating in a yearlong professional development project · 2026 · DOI

• While substantial policy attention and resources are directed toward Grade 12 outcomes, the foundational years of secondary education suffer from systemic neglect, creating a critical gap in understanding the drivers of early secondary school failure.

  Narratives of neglect: a multi stakeholder narrative analysis of grade 8 and 9 underperformance in rural South African schools · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of the study, several future directions are recommended to further enhance early childhood education practices and support kindergarten teachers in managing the challenges they encounter in their professional work. For school heads and educational administrators, the findings suggest the need to strengthen leadership practices that prioritize teacher well-being, instructional support, and the provision of adequate learning resources in kindergarten education. School leaders are encouraged to implement policies that address large class sizes, reduce excessive administrative workload, and ensure the availability of developmentally appropriate instructional materials that support play-based and experiential learning. ----------------------- 2026 EPRA ECEM | ISSN: 2348 – 814X| https://eprapublishing.org/ ------------------------------------------61 EPRA International Journal of Environmental Economics, Commerce and Educational Management Journal DOI: 10.36713/epra0414 |ISI I.F Value: 0.815|SJIF Impact Factor (2026): 8.752 ISSN: 2348 – 814X Volume: 13 | Issue:6 | June 2026 -Peer Reviewed Journal In addition, the establishment of structured mentoring systems, regular instructional coaching, and sustained Learning Action Cell (LAC) sessions is recommended to support teachers’ continuous professional growth and instructional competence. Furthermore, school heads may strengthen home–school collaboration by promoting meaningful parental involvement and community engagement programs that support learners’ emotional adjustment, behavior development, and school readiness. For kindergarten teachers, the findings highlight the importance of continuously strengthening emotional resilience, instructional effectiveness, and collaborative practices. Teachers are encouraged to further develop and sustain emotional regulation strategies, time management skills, and self-care practices to effectively manage classroom stress and workload demands. They should also continue enhancing the use of play-based learning, differentiated instruction, and learnercentered approaches to better address diverse learner needs and promote active engagement. Moreover, active participation in professional development activities, peer mentoring, and collaborative learning opportunities is recommended to continuously improve instructional practices and share effective strategies in managing early childhood classrooms. For future researchers, it is recommended that similar studies be conducted in other divisions or educational settings to broaden the understanding of kindergarten teachers’ lived experiences across different contexts.

  HEART WORK BEYOND HARD WORK: CHALLENGES OF TEACHERS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD TEACHING · 2026 · DOI

• To strengthen the FRB Feeding Program, schools and implementers should improve communication with parents by sharing updates on students’ progress, health, and attendance. Meal variety and balanced nutrition should also be enhanced to maximize health benefits. Schools should regularly monitor students’ attendance and academic progress, while priority should be given to low-income families who benefit most from the program. Stronger parent and community involvement, along with continuous evaluation, is also recommended to ensure the program remains effective, responsive, and sustainable. FURTHER STUDY Future research is encouraged to expand both the scope and depth of understanding regarding the effectiveness of feeding programs implemented by organizations such as the Fernando-Rosa Bautista Foundation. Subsequent studies may consider incorporating a larger and more diverse sample across different regions to enhance the generalizability of findings. In addition, employing mixed-method approaches—combining quantitative surveys with in- depth qualitative interviews—could provide richer insights into the nuanced perceptions of parents and teachers. Researchers may also explore the long-term impacts of feeding programs on children’s nutritional status, academic performance, and psychosocial well-being. Comparative studies between different feeding initiatives, including government-led and private foundation programs, would further contribute to identifying best practices and policy implications. Moreover, future investigations could examine the role of community engagement, cultural factors, and institutional support in shaping the success and sustainability of feeding programs. It would also be beneficial to analyze the cost-effectiveness and resource management strategies employed by such programs to ensure their scalability. Integrating perspectives from additional stakeholders—such as students, program implementers, and local government units—can provide a more comprehensive evaluation. Finally, longitudinal studies that track changes over time would be valuable in assessing whether positive perceptions translate into measurable developmental outcomes for beneficiaries, thereby strengthening the evidence base for continued investment in feeding initiatives. ACKNOWLEDGMENT The researchers would like to express their sincere gratitude to all individuals and institutions who contributed to the successful completion of this study. Special appreciation is extended to the parents and teachers who willingly participated and shared their valuable time, experiences, and insights, which served as the foundation of this research. The researchers also acknowledge the support and cooperation of the Fernando-Rosa Bautista Foundation for granting access to relevant information and facilitating the conduct of the study. Their 1756 East Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (EAJMR) Vol. 5, No. 5, 2026: 1747 - 1758 commitment to improving child nutrition and welfare has been instrumental in making this research possible. Furthermore, the researchers are deeply thankful to academic mentors, colleagues, and reviewers for their constructive feedback and guidance throughout the research process. Appreciation is also extended to the institutions and communities that provided logistical and moral support during data collection and analysis. Lastly, the researchers recognize the importance of collaborative efforts in advancing knowledge and hope that this study will contribute meaningfully to the improvement of feeding programs and the well- being of children in various communities. REFERENCES Agustin, K. K., & Medalla, D. (2024). School-Based Feeding Program and its relationship to the physical and behavioral development of the recipients in selected districts in Midsayap (K to 3). Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 22(9). https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=28010 Bidopia, T., Vivas Carbo, A., Ross, R. A., & Burke, N. L. (2023). Food insecurity and disordered eating behaviors in children and adolescents: A systematic review.

  Perception of Parents and Teachers on the Fernando-Rosa Bautista Foundation Feeding Program · 2026 · DOI

• Strengths of this secondary analysis include: the 2023 Vanuatu MICS was nationally representative, the survey was administered by trained enumerators, and the questionnaire was customised and translated from English into Bislama and French, and pre-tested in both urban and rural areas. Nevertheless, we acknowledge some limitations. Moderation analyses of secondary data are useful for exploring complex relationships but remain exploratory. Marginal affects should be interpreted cautiously due to the increased risk of type 1 error from multiple testing. There are some limitations regarding the source data. First, the MICS survey provides broad, population-level insights but lacks the granularity of individual developmental assessments. Second, the survey omits activities involving non-household adults, who often play key caregiving roles in Vanuatu communities [45]. This might overlook important aspects of a young child’s experiences. Third, the child development and caregiving data were based on caregiver -reports, which are subject to biases. Parent reporting may increase the likelihood of social desirability bias where answers are overstated to appear more acceptable, and by recall bias where past events are remembered inaccurately [98]. Fourth, the responsive caregiving measure included only six general activities over the past three days, without assessing quality or frequency of interactions. Fifth, the study’s cross sectional nature limits causal inference. While associations can be identified, they cannot be interpreted as cause-effect relationships. Implications for research, policy and practice This study provides local data from the perspective of caregivers, which is essential for shaping early childhood development policies that reflect the cultural and socioeconomic realities of Vanuatu. Findings from our secondary analyses highlight potential policy priority areas including promoting access to books and toys, investing in par- enting education to strengthen home-based support for child development, engaging fathers in caregiving through gender-informed approaches, and tailoring programs to regional and rural contexts. More broadly, poverty reduc- tion strategies could benefit children in Vanuatu. Suggested future research includes investigating the role of father involvement and examining the unexpected associations between justification of domestic violence, supervision, and child development.

  Home caregiving, early learning and the development of preschool-aged children in Vanuatu: A secondary analysis of 2023 Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey data · 2026 · DOI

• This study is limited Dean&Francis5 by its research scope and sample selection, failing to cov- er the heterogeneity of student groups of different grades and genders in high schools, and the analysis of the causal mechanism between teacher-student relationships and learning engagement remains to be deepened with more longitudinal research evidence.

  The Impact of Teacher-Student Relationships on High School Students’ Learning Engagement · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Early Childhood Education and Development

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• Systemic social and emotional learning: Promoting educational success for all preschool to high school students. · American Psychologist · 2020 · 343 citations
• Adult outcomes as a function of an early childhood educational program: An Abecedarian Project follow-up. · Developmental Psychology · 2012 · 290 citations
• Learning Through Play at School – A Framework for Policy and Practice · Frontiers in Education · 2022 · 179 citations
• The social context of early schooling and children's school adjustment · Educational Psychologist · 1998 · 163 citations
• The social competence of Latino kindergartners and growth in mathematical understanding. · Developmental Psychology · 2010 · 154 citations
• Systematic literature review of primary‒secondary transitions: International research · Review of Education · 2020 · 154 citations
• Effects of teachers' emotion regulation, burnout, and life satisfaction on student well-being · Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology · 2020 · 151 citations
• Part and parcel of teaching? Secondary school staff's views on supporting student emotional health and well‐being · British Educational Research Journal · 2009 · 144 citations

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