Open research questions in Online and Blended Learning

What the literature leaves open

• Participation frequency, active time on platform Evaluation sub-metrics Instructor quality, content quality, platform usability, learning outcomes. Net promoter score (NPS) Number of logins per week/ month, total time logged in, average time per session.

  A systematic review of MOOC platforms, evaluation frameworks and development of integrated model · 2026 · DOI

• Future research may address these limitations by: (1) employing randomized controlled designs across multiple institutions; (2) conducting longitudinal studies to examine long-term professional competencies; (3) adopting factorial designs to isolate and test the interaction effects of instructional models and AI support; (4) exploring optimal levels of AI assistance to balance cognitive support and learner autonomy. Second, cross-institutional collaboration and industry participation should be explored to better align instructional tasks with real-world professional practices.

  Examining the Impact of Case and Task Driven Blended Learning on Student Learning Outcomes in an International Trade Documentation Course · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this study, numerous recommendations are proposed to reinforce the implementation of blended learning within Rwanda Polytechnic-Kigali College. of students reported The college should establish partnerships with mobile network operators to provide subsidised student data packages and invest in a more reliable, mobile-optimised learning management system with offline‑capable features. The fact that inadequate 63.2% connectivity and 71.1% reported high internet expenses lends credence to this statement. Even when students understand the advantages of blended learning, these technical and budgetary barriers keep them from fully utilising it. While offline-capable features would lessen reliance on constant internet connectivity, zero-rating the college's learning management system would enable students to access course materials without using up their data allotment. A sustained, competency‑based professional development program for instructors should be facilitating online introduced, dialogue, moderating discussion forums, and in digital providing meaningful focusing on feedback environments. Additionally, the college should require structured and graded discussion forum activities with clear rubrics and regular instructor moderation. These recommendations arise from the finding that only 69.7% of students perceived improved interaction with instructors, and 25% explicitly disagreed learning enhanced engagement. The interaction deficit reflects a lack of social and teaching presence in the online components of current courses, making interaction an assessed and integral part of each course. that blended and navigation, The college should create a scheme that allows students to borrow laptops or tablets for the duration of the semester. Incoming students should be required to participate in digital literacy workshops that cover fundamental computer skills, web assignment submission procedures.

  Students’ Perceptions on Implementation of Blended Learning Approach at Rwanda Polytechnic-Kigali College · 2026 · DOI

• Future research may explore the application of the model across diverse institutional contexts, disciplines, and delivery formats, as well as its use in informing the design, implementation, and evaluation of interventions aimed at strengthening SDL capacity in online learning environments.

  A Conceptual Model for Developing Self-Directed Learning in Online Carousel Programmes · 2026 · DOI

• Findings revealed that most respondents moderately agreed that funding for ICT capacity building and continuous professional development was insufficient.

  Assessment of Availability of Financial Support in Readiness for Curriculum Implementation of Online Distance Learning in National Polytechnics in Kenya · 2026 · DOI

• Institutions need to develop an overall strategy that makes e-learning more accessible and inclusive; develops the capacity of all students to use digital technology; provides equal access to digital tools and resources to promote equity and inclusion; addresses the social economic barriers which restrict access to digital technology by providing free or low-cost devices, free or low-cost high-speed internet and shared access to digital technologies (e.g., computers, printers, scanners etc.) to all students. The development of curricula and instructional strategies that are gender sensitive is just as important. Curricula should meet the different ways that learners learn and use multiple forms of media (e.g., video games, podcasts) to engage students and to help close the gap in understanding between students. Providing training to build digital literacy among students and faculty is key to building the capacity of both groups to successfully utilize e-learning tools. Faculty members should be provided with training on how to manage e-learning platforms and to design effective content to deliver to their students. Faculty members should also be provided with peer-support systems and regular feedback systems so they will be able to better prepare themselves to teach online and to provide quality instruction to their students. Student and faculty activity should be monitored and evaluated regularly. Students who do not participate in their courses should be contacted to determine why they are not participating and to determine if there are any barriers to their ability to participate. Finally, institutions and governments need to provide the necessary support to foster an equitable e-learning environment. Policies related to higher education should include a focus on equity and inclusion and require institutions to implement gender-sensitive practices. In addition, institutions need to comply with national and international standards related to the equality of education and should develop frameworks that prioritize gender inclusivity. By developing an equitable e-learning environment, institutions can provide opportunities for all students to succeed and achieve their academic goals, regardless of gender, and contribute to achieving the broader goal of equity and inclusion in higher education.

  Potential strategies to address gender disparities in the use of instructional tools for E-Learning in Higher Education Institutions · 2026 · DOI

• While the use of OVL is growing worldwide and in Pakistan, little is known about medical students’ preferences, engagement, and perceptions across these modalities.

  Comparative analysis of university lectures, textbooks, and online video lectures: preferences, engagement, and impact on academic performance among medical students of Nowshera Medical College · 2026 · DOI

• social format PowerPoint presentation; plenary exchange and discussion PowerPoint presentation; input of research findings; plenary exchange and discussion Think-Pair- Share; groups of 2–3 participants Impulse feedback; evaluation questions The training content encompasses organizational and technical aspects, didactic principles, perspectives of both instructors and learners, as well as collaboration and moderation techniques. Accordingly, the hindering and facilitating factors identified in the results of this study are discussed and critically reflected upon. The core of the workshop is the development of an individual teaching and learning concept, which is to be created based on the following assignment questions: How can and should the course be newly designed as a hybrid format (considering sequences, synchronicity, and social forms)? What specific scenarios, tasks, steps, and resources should be included, and what considerations arise from the hybrid perspective? How should the different student groups be managed, and what relationships exist between them (e.g., preparation, information, communication, cooperation, rules)? How do you involve the different groups in your moderation? At the end of the workshop a short evaluation is conducted. The evaluation was voluntarily. The evaluation items are based on widely used, generic formulations from the established canon of workshop and course evaluation in adult and higher education. They are aligned with common didactic evaluation practices and classical evaluation models, particularly the Kirkpatrick model (Level 1: reaction/satisfaction), as well as transfer- and applicationoriented criteria often associated with extensions of Kirkpatrick Level 3 (Kirkpatrick, 1959). The items could be answered by a five-point Likert-scale from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = fully agree. To date, the workshop has been conducted on four occasions, with feedback obtained from 21 of the 26 participants (see Fig. 3). Due to the experiences from the workshop participants and the closing feedback session social integration and didactical methods are essential. The task is developing a new 1 3Developing a Hybrid Teaching Workshop for Simultaneous Online and… Fig. 3 means of the evaluation of the workshop discussion culture in higher education for health professions. Based on observations from teaching practice, it is evident that instructors need to pay attention for two groups of students with different needs and working conditions. At the same time, they must foster a sense of presence that bridges the gap between those who are “absent” and those who are present in person, given that off-campus participants are less visually present in the physical space.

  Developing a Hybrid Teaching Workshop for Simultaneous Online and Onsite Learning in Higher Education · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should explore the application of these findings in diverse educational contexts and investigate the long-term impact of humanised online learning practices. Future research should explore the role of social presence in diverse context, including undergraduate programs and cross- cultural settings.

  Humanising Online Learning through Social Presence in Higher Education · 2026 · DOI

• for Practitioners The study contributes an empirically tested framework that unites technological, social, and pedagogical dimensions within a single environment, demonstrating how learning design, combined with the social functionality of technology, can enhance both engagement and digital skills development. The findings indicate that the framework had a positive impact on student en- gagement, promoting social learning and digital socialization, yet reveal chal- lenges, including limited incentives and adaptation difficulties. Educators should integrate social learning hubs (structured yet flexible) into curricula that combine intentional learning goals with authentic peer interaction. Providing continuous guidance and clear incentives can strengthen the learning experience and, consequently, learning outcomes. For this purpose, teacher training is vital for bridging formal and informal contexts and promoting open, collaborative, and stimulating learning environments.

  A Hybrid Framework for a Social Learning Hub: Integrating Pedagogy and Digital Technologies to Bridge Formal and Informal Learning · 2026 · DOI

• By promoting independent, collaborative, and open learning behaviors through the combination of formal and informal learning contexts, the proposed frame- work supports the cultivation of digitally literate and socially responsible citi- zens, aligning with Area 2 of the European DigComp Framework. Longitudinal research tracking long-term digital competency gains, comparative analyses across cultures, and scalability tests of the hub in varied educational settings are recommended to refine the hub’s adaptive components, with a fo- cus on how it may foster a deeper pedagogical transformation in formal educa- tional systems.

  A Hybrid Framework for a Social Learning Hub: Integrating Pedagogy and Digital Technologies to Bridge Formal and Informal Learning · 2026 · DOI

• Motivation for the study: Existing models did not account for South Africa’s limited Information Technology (IT) infrastructure, low digital literacy, geographic dispersion or operational constraints preventing extended off-site training.

  Blended learning framework for management competencies in South African retail · 2026 · DOI

• The shortcomings of the study arise because of the aggregated data and a lack of subgroup analysis, but the findings fulfill the necessity of the additional investigation into the educational resilience and micro-level adaptation mechanisms as well as the context-dependent models of digital and psychological support.

  ICT-Based adaptation of educational programs: A methodological model for student mobility in crisis contexts · 2026 · DOI

• The findings reflect the specific circumstances of one South African higher education Journal of Learning Development in Higher Education | Issue 39: March 2026 Access to assessment feedback through learning management systems: a case study | 17 institution and may not be applicable to other settings with different technological infrastructure, student populations, or LMS platforms.

  Access to assessment feedback through learning management systems: a case study of open and distributed learning in South African higher education · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should consider the characteristics of the course or instructional design of the subject itself (duration, demand, required activities), the educational platform (usability, design), technological development (Internet access and speed), characteristics of the devices (access to PCs, laptops, tablets, mobiles).

  Explanatory factors of student perception of the online educational experience · 2026 · DOI

• This study presented a systematic review of the recent literature on the issue of assessing distance learning in a digital environment in the age of AI. Thus, we sought to identify the main concerns of researchers for ensuring a credible and effective distance assessment. At the end of this study, we found that the dis- tance evaluation process depends on pedagogical and technological factors. Although traditional assessment methods continue to be used, new approaches incorporating digital technologies are constantly evolving to meet the changing needs of education. This research identified strategies to improve the quality of distance assessment, which encompass both the detection and prevention of forms of dishonesty to ensure academic integrity. Furthermore, this study highlights the importance of embracing the integration of digital technologies into teaching and learning contexts and assess- ment objectives, with particular emphasis on the impact of artificial intelligence on the assessment JOURNAL OF EDUCATORS ONLINE of distance learning, which has led us to rethink assessment systems to adapt to a new reality. The use of repressive distance assessment meth- ods based on the detection of academic dishonesty in asynchronous modalities has several limitations. These are mainly related to technical, financial, and security constraints as well as negative effects of the methods on learner concentration and performance. In a context marked by a boom in emerging technologies such as generative AI and immersive technologies for developing attractive and interac- tive digital learning environments, it is necessary to rethink learning and assessment methods and integrate these technologies strategically and criti- cally for educational innovation. The results of this research invite those involved in teaching and educational institutions to immediately rethink their standards and procedures for preventing and detecting forms of academic dishonesty, with a view to developing dynamic and more authentic assessment practices. This approach is part of an active, learner-centered pedagogy that values com- mitment, creativity, and learning by doing. It sees assessment not as an end in itself, but as a process serving the development of skills. With this in mind, the principle of techno-pedagogical align- ment, which ensures coherence between learning and teaching environments, assessment methods, and technological developments, becomes essential. In this respect, integrating a digital portfolio into their process is an effective tool. Firstly, it enables learners to become actively involved in construct- ing their knowledge and to document, structure, and enhance their learning through contextualized tasks and authentic projects. Secondly, it provides teachers with learning records to monitor progress, assess skills, and support individualized learning paths. Also, by increasing the transparency and traceability of learning activities, this approach helps to prevent forms of academic dishonesty, while encouraging the ethical and thoughtful use of digital and AI technologies. In this way, it paves the way for fair, meaningful distance assessment that is aligned with the performance-rich digital environments of AI tools.

  Assessing Distance Learning in a Digital Environment in the Era of Artificial Intelligence: Systematic Review · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could explore additional demographic factors, such as faculty’s educational background and the subjects they teach, as these may influence their approach to student engagement in online graduate education. LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS Limitations of this study include the use of a nonprobability sampling strategy, the use of a self- reporting online questionnaire, and the inability to generalize findings due to the small sample size.

  Strategies for Fostering Graduate Students’ Engagement in Online Education · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should address this gap to provide insights into the sustained effects of blended learning initiatives. Furthermore, the integration of emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence and virtual reality in blended learning environments presents both opportunities and challenges that warrant further investigation (Zawacki-Richter et al. Secondly, longitudinal studies examining the long-term impacts of blended learning on student outcomes and institutional transformation are scarce (Ashraf et al.

  Analysis of Blended Learning in Higher Education Based on CiteSpace (2001-2024) · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should examine if academic variables, such as pass rate, There are limited studies for direct comparison in this field, particularly those comparing international and domestic students, with most research looking at international students in isolation and/or a focus on academic performance.

  Health Students' Experiences in an Innovative University Teaching Model: The Good, the Bad, the Challenging · 2026 · DOI

• , Ong & Weiss, 2000), which future research should consider in study design. Future research is needed, if the opportunity arises, to monitor new students and compare them against current students transitioning into new learning models. Also, due to recruitment methods used, it also could not be determined overall response rate, a consideration in future study.

  Health Students' Experiences in an Innovative University Teaching Model: The Good, the Bad, the Challenging · 2026 · DOI

• The first limitation of this study is that the findings may be particular to ICT. Further research on the effectiveness of the process of belonging applied to other countries, diverse cohorts and disciplines may add knowledge to the field of belonging and online learning for first-year students that accounts for the process of change in belonging over time.

  Fostering the process of belonging online through teaching and learning interactions · 2026 · DOI

• In consideration of the limitations of the study, some suggestions were made for researchers who want to perform a similar study in the future. This study can be carried out by using a different satisfaction scale or by collecting student opinions with qualitative research methods. In addition, by supporting student analytics and big data in learning management systems, data on satisfaction levels can be analysed in more detail. As a result of the higher online course satisfaction of older learners compared to young and middle-aged learners, it can be suggested to provide online learning activities that will increase the satisfaction of young and middle-aged learners. In this study, it was also revealed that the satisfaction levels of learners with high income levels were higher than those with low-income levels. Low-income students can be provided with open access, free, sustainable and effective online learning environments. In addition, various scholarship opportunities and project supports can be created for these students. It is also recommended to develop low- cost learning environments. Authors’ Note: This study was supported by Anadolu University Scientific Research Project numbered 2301E005. The summary of this research was presented as an oral paper at the “7th International Conference on Teaching, Learning and Education” held in Copenhagen. BIODATA AND CONTACT ADDRESSES OF AUTHORS Dr. Hakan ALTINPULLUK is an Associate Professor in the Department of Educational Sciences, Lifelong Learning and Adult Education Program at Faculty of Education, Anadolu University. He received his bachelor’s degree in Computer and Instructional Technology Education from the Faculty of Education at Anadolu University. In 2018, he completed his PhD at Anadolu University’s Institute of Social Sciences. In 2019, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor, and in 2021, he obtained the title of Associate Professor. Since 2023, he has been serving as a faculty member in the Department of Department of Educational Sciences, Lifelong Learning and Adult Education Program at Anadolu University’s Faculty 97 of Education. Throughout his academic career, he has published over 100 publications, including articles, book chapters, and conference papers. His current research interests include open and distance learning, educational technology, AR/VR and AI in education. Altinpulluk continues his academic endeavors in these fields.

  ARE GRADUATE LEARNERS TRULY SATISFIED WITH ONLINE COURSES? EVIDENCE FROM ANADOLU UNIVERSITY · 2026 · DOI

• Participants were limited by the following criteria: having experienced the February 6th earthquakes in Kahramanmaraş, being enrolled in formal university education before the February 6th earthquakes, continuing their education through distance education after the earthquakes, attending classes while staying in containers or tents during 359 Demir et al. Additionally, it can be said that the participants’ experiences were limited by a structured form of eight questions created by the researchers.

  University Students’ Experiences with Distance and Face-to-Face Education After The February 6th Earthquakes · 2026 · DOI

• Fifth, the duration of the intervention: 12 weeks is insufficient for identifying long-term effects. Caution is warranted in interpreting this value: results at the level of individual subscales (d = 0. Furthermore, the expansion of learning analytics capabilities is warranted.

  A structured online learning model based on active learning strategies: design and experimental evaluation in teacher education · 2026 · DOI

• technopedagogical distance content for faculty. The main limitation of this study is that it relies on qualitative content analysis and, although distributed with representative recorded episodes, it has not been tested with a wide range of subjects. Furthermore, because it focuses primarily on higher education, generalization to different levels, such as primary or adult education, should be made with caution.

  Communication Barriers and Solution Approaches in Post-Pandemic Distance Education · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Online and Blended Learning

• The Effectiveness of Online and Blended Learning: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature · Teachers College Record The Voice of Scholarship in Education · 2013 · 1,001 citations
• Exploring the critical challenges and factors influencing the E-learning system usage during COVID-19 pandemic · Education and Information Technologies · 2020 · 717 citations
• Mapping research in student engagement and educational technology in higher education: a systematic evidence map · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · 2020 · 652 citations
• Building Sense of Community at a Distance · The International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning · 2002 · 563 citations
• Applying the self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student engagement in online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic · Journal of Research on Technology in Education · 2021 · 554 citations
• Combining the Best of Online and Face-to-Face Learning: Hybrid and Blended Learning Approach for COVID-19, Post Vaccine, & Post-Pandemic World · Journal of Educational Technology Systems · 2021 · 504 citations
• The COVID-19 pandemic and E-learning: challenges and opportunities from the perspective of students and instructors · Journal of Computing in Higher Education · 2021 · 474 citations
• Using the UTAUT model to understand students’ usage of e-learning systems in developing countries · Education and Information Technologies · 2021 · 430 citations
• Profiling teachers' readiness for online teaching and learning in higher education: Who's ready? · Computers in Human Behavior · 2020 · 347 citations
• Transitioning to E-Learning during the COVID-19 pandemic: How have Higher Education Institutions responded to the challenge? · Education and Information Technologies · 2021 · 338 citations

Most recent work

• Student Attitudes and Experiences with Distance Learning During COVID-19: A Framework for Hybrid Education · Societies · 2026
• Intolerance of uncertainty and tolerance of ambiguity as distinct yet related predictors of student motivation in online learning: A systematic review · Learning and Motivation · 2026
• Educators’ perceptions about factors that affect blended learning adoption in higher education · Educational Research and Evaluation · 2026
• The International Journal of Technologies in Learning · The International Journal of Technologies in Learning · 2026
• Perceived Cohesiveness and Sociometric Choice in Ongoing Groups · The Journal of Psychodrama Sociometry and Group Psychotherapy · 2026
• Online service-learning versus face-to-face service-learning: learning gains in university students and associated predictors · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · 2026
• An Action Research Approach to Addressing the Online Teaching Gap: HyFlex Principles as a Framework for Teacher Education Reform · American Journal of Distance Education · 2026
• Revisiting Readiness for K–12 Online Teaching: What Teachers Reveal About Students, Preparation, and Policy Through a Graduate Online Learning Curriculum · Open Praxis · 2026
• Fostering the process of belonging online through teaching and learning interactions · Journal of University Teaching and Learning Practice · 2026
• Analysis of Blended Learning in Higher Education Based on CiteSpace (2001-2024) · The Electronic Journal of e-Learning · 2026

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