Open research questions in Global Education and Multiculturalism

What the literature leaves open

• Recommendations for Practice Teachers need to be more flexible when teaching sensitive topics such as mental health, identity, family relationships, trauma, and gender, which are valuable for students even though not all feel comfortable discussing them publicly. Speaking in front of the class should not be treated as the only sign of engagement; some students understand and care about a topic yet prefer not to share personal feelings openly. Teachers should also set clear discussion rules, making it understood that respectful disagreement is allowed and that no one will be required to share personal experiences in order to take part. Recommendations for School and Institutional Action Schools should review whether their well-being teaching relies too heavily on one dominant cultural perspective, recognising that enrolling students from many backgrounds does not automatically make the curriculum feel culturally balanced. They should examine whether lesson materials and discussion methods reflect different family values, emotional expectations, cultural sensitivities, and real-life experiences. Professional development should also be more practical: general diversity training can raise awareness but may not adequately prepare teachers to lead sensitive discussions in multicultural classrooms. 1509 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ACADEMIC RESEARCH IN PROGRESSIVE EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT Vol. 1 5, No.

  Cultural Friction and the Shaping of Well-Being Curriculum in International Schools: A Mixed-Methods Study · 2026 · DOI

• Inspection reports that state that FPPL are interconnected with local Indigenous perspectives in host country contexts are sparse across a portion of the schools, yet FPPL localization has occurred in a variety of host countries, particularly Japan, Colombia, and China.

  How First Peoples Principles of Learning have been Included in British Columbia Offshore School Inspection Reports from 2018 to 2024 · 2026 · DOI

• The success and challenges of the COIL project provide a robust foundation for enhancing future iterations and contributing to the broader field of virtual exchange. The study recommends the following points for Practice: o Co-Design is Crucial: Faculty from both institutions must collaboratively design all aspects— syllabus, activities, assessments—to ensure balance and reciprocity. Design early tasks to be lowstakes and relationship-building (e.g., a shared Padlet on educational experiences, a collaborative playlist). Gradually build towards more complex, graded collaborative output. o Prepare for Discomfort: Facilitate discussions on power, privilege, and positionality explicitly. Create a safe but brave space for difficult conversations. Acknowledge theoretically that a COIL project is a "negotiated space" where different knowledge systems (Global North/South, Journalism/History) meet. Drawing on postcolonial theory, explicitly task students with cocreating a third space of understanding that respects and integrates their diverse perspectives rather than having one dominate. o Focus on Collaborative Outputs: The social impact is amplified if the student collaboration produces a tangible output (e.g., a joint policy brief, a comparative analysis report, a public blog series) that can be shared beyond the classroom. Dedicate a portion of the final grade to the process of collaboration (e.g., peer evaluations, reflective journals, contribution to shared documents) rather than solely the final product. This values the development of soft skills. o Contribute to SoTL: Document the process, gather robust data (surveys, interviews, reflective analysis), and publish the findings. This adds to the academic understanding of how such partnerships can work effectively. By implementing these recommendations and following these research avenues, the project can evolve from a successful isolated module to a model of best practice for critical, collaborative, and globally engaged education.

  Exploring initiatives towards Social Impact contributing to better Quality Education: A Collaborative Online International Learning project between the University of Johannesburg and the University of Dallas, Texas · 2026 · DOI

• There is much more that could be explored about the nuances of our racialised experiences, and of negotiating interactions with students and institutions. It is important to note that this discussion is limited by our individual positionalities and the emphasis on reflexivity regarding small steps, or ‘tinkering’, rather than formal assessment.

  Collaboration and Decolonisation · 2026 · DOI

• These teachers realised that setting strict boundaries and limiting support to the physical spaces and operating hours 62 Exploring Finnish vocational teachers’ agency in teaching migrant students of formal educational institutions was insufficient.

  Exploring Finnish vocational teachers’ agency in teaching migrant students · 2026 · DOI

• 89 Future research may build on this study by examining GCED and TLT integration across multiple institutions to enable comparative and cross-cultural analysis (Massaro, 2022; Spronken-Smith et al., 2024). Longitudinal studies could further explore how transformative learning outcomes develop throughout graduate education and translate into sustained professional and civic engagement (Taylor & Cranton, 2012). Additionally, future research may investigate specific pedagogical strategies, institutional policies, or partnership models that strengthen dialogic and experiential learning components within GCED-oriented curricula (O’Flaherty et al., 2025; Mustafida et al., 2026).

  Integrating global citizenship and transformative learning · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should focus on reliable assessment tools and structured programs such as COIL to better equip teachers for their evolving role as intercultural mediators in diverse learning contexts.

  Araucanía Chilean EFL Teachers’ Beliefs Regarding Their Intercultural Mediator Role · 2026 · DOI

• Taken together, these elements illustrate how culture is constructed within the French educational discourse, both as a shared set of knowledge and values to be transmitted to all pupils and as a dimension of diversity to be taken into account within a republican framework. This framing shapes educational policies, which combine an emphasis on equality through access to com- mon cultural references with expectations of neutrality towards cultural differences. Cultural education is therefore conceived as a central component of the formation of republican citizens, whi- le also being mobilized in relation to social and cultural inequa- lities. 22 4'25 ZEP MoNER – Ministry of National Education, Higher Education and Research (2015). Bulletin officiel spécial n°11 du 26 novembre 2015. Programmes d'enseignement de l'école élémentaire et du collège. MoNER (2018). Bulletin officiel n°30 du 26 juillet 2018. Ecole élémentaire et collège: modification sur l’Enseignement civique et moral. Ravez, C. (2019). L’interculturel à l’école: quels cadres de référence? Dossier de veille de l’IFÉ, 129. Dr. Lucy Bell Junior professor of sociology of education the University Rennes 2 in Brittany, France, main areas of work: European and national higher education policies, com- parative studies of higher education systems in Europe, unequal access to (higher) education.

  Culture as a Construct with the Educational Discourse – French Perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• under-resourced A key limitation of this study is the absence of direct input from Warao students and families. Further attention is also needed to the experiences of Indigenous refugee students with visible and invisible disabilities, which remain critically underexplored.

  Translanguaging as Resilience: Trauma-Informed and Culturally Sustaining Education for Venezuelan Indigenous Refugee Students in Brazil s Public Schools · 2026 · DOI

• This research has revealed a gap between teachers' understanding of citizenship and their classroom practices. Therefore, teacher training programs should focus more on democratic and participatory approaches to citizenship education, rather than solely on conceptual content. Teacher candidates should be equipped with skills in discussion-based teaching, creating a conducive classroom environment, and fostering community engagement. Future research could compare the relationship between teachers' beliefs and pedagogical practices across various contexts.

  EXPLORING CITIZENSHIP AND CITIZENSHIP EDUCATION FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS IN TÜRKİYE · 2026 · DOI

• We recognize that Nova Scotia’s teacher education system stands at a pivotal moment as it balances urgent workforce needs with a firm commitment to equity, inclusion, and high-quality preparation of teachers for 21st-century learners. Therefore, sustaining and expanding diversity initiatives remains essential. We advocate province-wide implementation of research-informed anti-racist pedagogy (Escayg et al., 2017; St. Denis, 2007), supported by professional development for faculty and teacher candidates to deepen understanding of systemic inequities and marginalized communities, and to address biases toward racialized students. We believe that such training will equip faculty and teacher candidates with the knowledge and skills necessary to recognize and challenge these biases, promoting their capacity to act as thoughtful allies who actively support and empower marginalized learners in teacher education programs and in K–12 classrooms alike. Nova Scotia’s diverse communities, including Mi’kmaq, ANS, immigrants, and refugees of varied backgrounds, call for a focus on teacher preparation in English as an Additional Language (EAL), trauma- informed practices, and inclusive pedagogy. We believe that centring students’ psychological, social, emotional, and physical well-being must come before academic content delivery. By deeply embedding these competencies in teacher education curricula, we argue that future educators will be effectively prepared to promote safe and supportive classrooms where every student’s unique potential is nurtured to flourish. Although education and teacher education in Canada are provincially governed, Nova Scotia’s programs attract candidates from across the country and beyond, reflecting the interconnected nature of provincial systems despite jurisdictional autonomy. Reducing barriers to teacher mobility is essential. Canada’s recent Bill C-5, the “One Canadian Economy Act,” aims to streamline credential recognition and enable freer movement of workers across provinces (Ballingall, 2025). While education remains a provincial responsibility, such federal efforts present opportunities to harmonize teacher certification nationally and address regional shortages. We argue that Nova Scotia should build on this momentum by innovating with program formats like concurrent admissions and online delivery, while collaborating with national bodies such as the CMEC to maintain rigorous yet accessible standards.

  Teacher Education in Nova Scotia · 2026 · DOI

• FIGURE 3. Recommendations for entities on levels of educational research for addressing and avoiding (academic) othering As our article concerns an international intervention project, we would also like to direct some recommendations towards similar initiatives. Firstly, although we recognize the significance of concrete results that reflect the original proposal, we would urge relevant parties to elevate the renegotiations of the central figures of the project on the list of priorities, despite the risk of alterations in the project plan. This may lead not only to more opportunities to reduce and dismantle othering, but also results McGILL JOURNAL OF EDUCATION • VOL. 60 NO 1 WINTER 2026 56 Lukala & Dervin and methods that are more relevant to the objectives, as shared knowledge is negotiated and expanded during the lifetime of the project. Secondly, guidelines that account for ethical writing practices should be provided for international application reviewers, application writing course organisers, and universities that select projects to put forward in, for example, EU application rounds. In Figure 3 we suggest concrete recommendations for these various levels involved in decision-making concerning international educational research projects. These ethical criteria should include a demand for sensitivity, possibility for renegotiation, and an emphasis on the importance of wording in relation to potential othering (Dervin, 2023). In Table 3 we briefly suggest some questions that may aid in recognizing academic othering, focusing on the naming, (de)agentivizing, and characterizing of the other, tying them together with othering (Jensen, 2011), ventriloquism (see Authier- Revuz, 1984; Dervin, 2008), and academic othering (Krumer-Nevo & Sidi, 2012). TABLE 3.

  When researchers in teacher education and training other: Social justice and the “migrant student” in an EU–Finland project · 2026 · DOI

• The study finds that secondary school teachers exhibit high emotional identification, value recognition and inheritance, and willingness to innovate regarding red culture; however, cognitive depth is insufficient, teaching practice lacks systematicity, and there is a widespread sense of capability anxiety.

  High Emotion, Low Practice: A Survey on the Red Culture Literacy of Secondary School Teachers in Shanxi Province · 2026 · DOI

• Abstract This conceptual inquiry addresses a gap in research on inclusion within Innovative Learning Environments (ILEs): while ILEs are widely promoted as inclusive, studies often focus on well‐resourced schools and overlook how policy and space intra‐act as mutually shaping processes that produce both inclusion and exclusion.

  Inclusion within innovative learning environments: A new materialist stratigraphy of spatio–political assemblages · 2026 · DOI

• This study, therefore, aim to address this gap in the literature by exploring preservice teachers’ perspectives (in Kuwait and Germany) regarding their conceptual understandings for the GCE, aiming to compare how future educators in both contexts define and interpret the subject.

  Preservice teachers’ perspectives regarding their understanding of global citizenship education in Kuwait and Germany: A comparative study · 2026 · DOI

• In reimagining GCE in the age of AI, we argue for a human­centred, decolonial and ethically grounded conceptual framework. At the heart of this reimagining lies a fundamental principle: authentic GCE cannot be realised without deep commit­ ment to relationality, ethical responsibility and recognition of our shared human­ ity. The transformative potential of GCE emerges not from replicating best prac­ tices or using digital platforms alone, but from embodied and affective experiences of connection across difference. While digital technologies and virtual exchanges can extend access and supplement engagement, they cannot replace the formative human encounters that cultivate empathy, humility and ethical discernment. However, significant structural inequalities persist. Disparities in access to mobil­ ity, intercultural exchange and knowledge production continue to marginalise many students and institutions. Future research must focus on how to democratise oppor­ tunities for global engagement, not only by expanding access to physical or digital exchange but by rethinking the terms on which participation occurs. This includes interrogating how GCE frameworks are culturally translated and adapted, particu­ larly in non­Western contexts, and how student agency is fostered within or against institutional imaginaries of global citizenship. Moreover, power asymmetries within global education – especially between institutions in the Global North and South – demand critical reflection and action. GCE can only be meaningful if those from more privileged HE institutions are willing to redistribute resources, share author­ ship and challenge hierarchies, rather than reinforcing them through symbolic or Figure 6 The interconnected dimensions of the CER framework, centred on human connection and col­ lective growth market­driven engagement. Without such commitment, GCE risks remaining a uto­ pian ideal – one that gestures towards justice while reproducing systemic inequities. We do not need AI to replace human intellectual and emotional capacities; instead, we must intentionally integrate technology in ways that amplify our abil­ ity to relate, care, act and create ethically together. The future of GCE must there­ fore prioritise the quality of human connection above all – recognising each learner as invaluable and irreducible, distinct from any algorithmic tool, no matter how advanced. Ultimately, we call for a recalibration of GCE around relational eth­ ics, shared responsibility and epistemic humility. Only by centring what makes us human can GCE fulfil its promise – not as a strategy of institutional branding, but as a transformative project of global solidarity. As HE institutions face increasing pres­ sure to integrate AI technologies, they must resist the temptation to pursue efficiency at the expense of ethics. Instead, we recommend they embed this human­centred, critically reflexive GCE framework into their strategic planning, curriculum design and institutional ethos. Researchers, educators and policymakers alike must engage in ongoing dialogue and collaborative experimentation to ensure that digital trans­ formation in education serves as a pathway to justice, not a mechanism of exclusion. The time for reflection is now – but so too is the time for bold, values­driven action. Funding Open access funding provided by HEAL­Link Greece. Data availability Not applicable. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Com­ mons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http:// creat iveco mmons. org/ licen ses/ by/4. 0/.

  To be (or not to be) a global citizen in an algorithmic world? A cartographic, ethical and reflexive framework for higher education · 2026 · DOI

• This article addresses the underexplored role of education intergovernmental organisations in navigating crises of the liberal international order, focusing on how cosmopolitanism, nationalism and universalism shape OECD and UNESCO policies and strategies.

  Navigating nationalism, universalism and cosmopolitanism: a historical inquiry into international education organisations and the crisis of the liberal international order · 2025 · DOI

• Following introductory remarks about the importance and growing recognition of the significance of such links, we make general and then contextualized comments about collaboration in higher education, particularly in the relatively underexplored area of connections between Japan and the United Kingdom.

  Building links through education: Japan and the United Kingdom · 2025 · DOI

• Informed by the poststructuralist view of identity, this qualitative study investigates the relatively underexplored area of the complex identities of English language teacher-supplied EPT in Central Asia.

  Unpacking the complexity of English language teacher-tutor identities in Kazakhstan: a qualitative inquiry · 2025 · DOI

• This research fills a gap in the research linking special education teacher preparation and international immersion experiences by focusing on a twenty-year-old immersion program which places preservice special education teachers in Scotland for a five-week experience including a homestay, school-based practicum, and travel.

  Development of a U.S.-Scottish Immersion Experience and Its Influence on Participants, Partners, and Programs: An International Case Study · 2024 · DOI

• In particular, CASAE advocates in Vancouver had to navigate around Coolie Verner, who felt adult education (as a discipline and field) was stalled by lack of consensus concerning fundamental concepts.

  True North Strong and Free: Three Wise Men and The Founding of CASAE/ACÉÉA · 2024 · DOI

• Focussing on decontextualisation–a depoliticising way of seeing education that overlooks contexts–the paper is based on semi-structured interviews with teachers (n = 15) and open questions of a survey data (n = 267) collected from teachers, principals and teacher assistants at the end of 2022 in Finland.

  Inequitable discourses on refugee students resisted and maintained by educators – the perspective of decontextualisation · 2024 · DOI

• The New Zealand Curriculum (NZC) conveys a vision of DCE across subject disciplines, yet digital citizenship is scarcely defined in teaching content or learning objectives.

  Digital citizenship education in the Aotearoa New Zealand curriculum: Developing speculative DCE · 2023 · DOI

• Few studies have shown examples of teachers, especially IB MYP teachers, who are committed to teaching for global citizenship and use the tools they are given to center student choice and connect the content to their students' lives.

  “Using what you have” to teach for global citizenship · 2021 · DOI

• Schools that serve a majority of Indigenous students are generally located on or bordering Native Nations that are federally recognized as being sovereign Nations with a government-to-government relationship to the federal government, so the more generic diversity, equity, and inclusion tools that currently exist are insufficient for the unique contexts of schools in Indian Country.

  Developing and piloting a tool to assess culturally responsive principles in schools serving Indigenous students · 2021 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Global Education and Multiculturalism

• A meta-review of typologies of global citizenship education · Comparative Education · 2020 · 285 citations
• “Decolonizing” Curriculum and Pedagogy: A Comparative Review Across Disciplines and Global Higher Education Contexts · Review of Educational Research · 2021 · 265 citations
• Globalization, Immigration, and Education: The Research Agenda · Harvard Educational Review · 2001 · 193 citations
• Education for democratic citizenship: a review of research, policy and practice 1995–2005¹ · Research Papers in Education · 2006 · 174 citations
• Three Decades of Culturally Relevant, Responsive, & Sustaining Pedagogy: What Lies Ahead? · The Educational Forum · 2021 · 166 citations
• Towards an integrative understanding of contemporary educational mobilities: a critical agenda for international student mobilities research · Globalisation Societies and Education · 2020 · 161 citations
• Culturally Sustaining Pedagogies and Our Futures · The Educational Forum · 2021 · 130 citations
• From Margins to Center: Developing Cultural Citizenship Education Through the Teaching of Asian American History · Theory & Research in Social Education · 2018 · 115 citations
• Social Class, Identity, and Migrant Students · Journal of Language Identity & Education · 2014 · 96 citations
• What is global higher education? · Oxford Review of Education · 2022 · 95 citations

Most recent work

• Unravelling agency: A critical review of conceptualisations of agency for educational research, policy and practice · Review of Education · 2026
• Engineering civility: steeling global citizenship education’s democratic resolve against nihilism and for civil repair · Discourse Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education · 2026
• Living together in diversity: A comparative study of citizenship education curricula in Sri Lanka and Australia · Journal of Moral Education · 2026
• Different contexts, similar mindsets? A comparative study of parental decision-making in private tutoring in Hong Kong and the Czech Republic · Compare A Journal of Comparative and International Education · 2026
• Intersectional Positionality and Lived Experiences of Asian International Teacher Educators in U.S. Academia · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · 2026
• Bridging global goals and local contexts · Journal of International Students · 2026
• Exploring Global Citizenship Education Practices among Early Childhood Development Educators in the Western Cape, South Africa · Gulf Education and Social Policy Review (GESPR) · 2026
• The art of being global: rearticulations of global citizenship from International Baccalaureate students in southern China · Discourse Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education · 2026
• Intercultural education in the Anthropocene – international perspectives, challenges, and initiatives · Intercultural Education · 2026
• Unheard voices: emotional exclusion of migrant students in Spain’s schools through poetic inquiry · Culture and Organization · 2026

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