Open research questions in Media, Religion, Digital Communication

What the literature leaves open

• The commodification of sacred spaces. The fragmentation of scholarly authority by algorithms. The need for renewed theological engagement and digital literacy in Islamic civilization.

  Prostrating in The Cloud: Faith, Identity, and the New Frontiers of Islamic Civilization · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies the challenge of promoting legal humanism in a conservative religious context. It highlights the need to balance religious values with compassionate and inclusive approaches.

  Humanizing Islamic Legal Discourse in the Digital Public Space: A Maqāṣid Perspective of Buya Yahya’s Fatwas on LGBT · 2026 · DOI

• The phenomenon of echo chambers can limit critical thinking, strengthen prejudices, reduce openness to different viewpoints, and hinder constructive dialogue. The digital space may become a place of polarization rather than mutual understanding if not addressed. There is a need to develop a spiritualitas dialog that can foster openness, mutual listening, respect, and fraternity amid diversity.

  Echo Chamber dan Spiritualitas Dialog Katekis dalam Terang Fratelli Tutti · 2026 · DOI

• This research has limitations due to the lack of direct empirical testing. The operationalization of the six taxonomies as digital fortresses formulated remains theoretical, requiring field validation to measure the effectiveness of message design against rapidly changing social media algorithm fluctuations.

  Algorithmic-Adaptive Islamic Communication Strategy: Building Hybrid and Ideological Resilience through Palestinian Solidarity Narratives · 2026 · DOI

• Current research lacks a systematic understanding of narrative and visual elements in religious videos. There is a need to develop taxonomies of narrative frameworks, visual elements, and viewer interaction.

  The Digital Landscape of God: Narrative, Visuals and Viewer Engagement of Religious Videos on YouTube · 2026 · DOI

• Our study has several limitations. First, our sampling strat- egy utilizes English-language queries sorted by view count; while capturing high-impact content, this may overrepre- sent algorithmically amplified videos and underrepresent au- thentic non-English traditions, such as Arabic Islamic or Sanskrit Hindu content. Given that the dataset spans over 130 languages, the inherent limitations of current cross- lingual translation and semantic alignment methods may compromise the accuracy and representativeness of com- ment analysis for non-English content. Second, although our LLM-assisted coding achieved robust reliability (Krip- pendorff’s α 0.83–0.91), subtle tradition-specific symbolism may still present challenges despite systematic human vali- dation. Third, the nascent adoption of AI-generated content resulted in a limited sample size (5.28%, n=58), warrant- ing cautious interpretation of associated effect sizes due to potential variance inflation. Finally, our cross-sectional de- sign captures correlations rather than causality, and findings specific to YouTube may not fully generalize to platforms with different algorithmic logics. We acknowledge the risk of these taxonomies being used to optimize manipulative content and urge ethical adherence in future applications.

  The Digital Landscape of God: Narrative, Visuals and Viewer Engagement of Religious Videos on YouTube · 2026 · DOI

• Future research can explore the long-term implications of virtual spirituality for Islamic civilization. The study's findings can inform the development of immersive technology-based models of Islamic worship and education.

  Prostrating in The Cloud: Faith, Identity, and the New Frontiers of Islamic Civilization · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of understanding of how robots are actually being used in religious institutions. The lack of analysis of the implications of robots for the future of religion.

  Bounded Ritual Automation: Buddhist Robots, Sacred Presence, and the Limits of Delegation in East Asia · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the understanding of participation in Bible study in the digital era. It highlights the need for flexible Bible study programs.

  Bible Study Participation in the Digital Era: Challenges and Opportunities · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in understanding the role of digital faith engagement in shaping religious identity, interfaith engagement, and polarization in Nigeria. The study highlights the need for intentional, ethically grounded, and context-sensitive engagement in the digital age.

  Digital Faith Engagement: A Necessity for Missiological Relevance in the Age of Social Media and Bridge to Religious Polarization in Nigeria · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made: 1. Religious leaders and institutions should develop clearer digital communication strategies that emphasize truth, restraint, and responsible public witness. 2. Churches, mosques, and faith-based organizations should invest in digital literacy for clergy, youth, and online communicators so that religious messaging remains effective and ethically grounded. 3. Interfaith actors should use social media more intentionally for dialogue, peace messaging, and shared humanitarian concerns rather than only for doctrinal competition. 4. Religious institutions should train moderators or digital communication teams who can respond to online tensions calmly and reduce the spread of inflammatory content. 5. Future research should examine platform-specific dynamics, especially how different apps shape religious communication, visibility, and polarization in distinct ways. These recommendations fit the evidence of the study and align with the broader understanding that digital media can support religious harmony when communication is deliberate, inclusive, and well-managed.

  Digital Faith Engagement: A Necessity for Missiological Relevance in the Age of Social Media and Bridge to Religious Polarization in Nigeria · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the existing body of knowledge on the intersection of digitalization and Christian values. The preservation and transmission of Christian values are particularly affected by digitalization, and there is a need to examine the implications of digitalization for the preservation and transmission of Christian values in Nigeria.

  Implications of Digitalization for the Preservation and Transmission of Christian Values · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed: 1. Christian leaders and institutions in Nigeria should develop intentional strategies for incorporating digital technologies into their practices and programmes. This integration should prioritize the preservation and transmission of Christian values, while also acknowledging the potential challenges associated with digitalization. 2. Christian institutions and leaders in Nigeria should collaborate with relevant stakeholders, including government agencies and technology companies, to establish guidelines and regulations for the responsible use of digital technologies in religious contexts. This collaboration will help mitigate the risks associated with digitalization, such as misinformation and the dilution of Christian values. 3. Christian educators and leaders should emphasize the importance of digital literacy and critical thinking skills among younger generations. This emphasis will enable them to navigate digital platforms effectively, discern credible sources of information, and uphold the integrity of Christian values in the digital age. 4. The development of a contextualized digital theology is imperative for Nigerian Christianity. This theology should take into account the unique cultural, socio-economic, and religious factors that shape the intersection of digitalization and Christian values in Nigeria. Adebayo, O. O. (2023). Digitalizing Christian worship in Nigeria: Opportunities and challenges. Journal of African Christian Studies, 12 (1), 1–15.

  Implications of Digitalization for the Preservation and Transmission of Christian Values · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies can explore the impact of social media on the spiritual lives of priests' followers. Future research can investigate the role of social media in shaping the public perception of religion. Future studies can examine the effectiveness of different social media strategies for religious institutions.

  Priests as Social Media Influencers? A Study on the Lived Experiences of Select Bulacan Clergy’s Engagement in Social Media · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the understanding of priests' lived experiences on social media. The study recognizes the need to explore the motivations, strategies, and challenges of priests as digital content creators.

  Priests as Social Media Influencers? A Study on the Lived Experiences of Select Bulacan Clergy’s Engagement in Social Media · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of a comprehensive framework that integrates digital literacy, global communication ethics, and Islamic moderation values. The need for a redefinition of digital literacy that goes beyond technical skills and includes critical capacity and ethical awareness.

  GLOBAL COMMUNICATION ETHICS AND DIGITAL LITERACY: BUILDING A MODERATE VIRTUAL LEARNING SPACE IN THE CYBER ERA · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this research, the following are recommended: (1) In education, it is necessary to develop a critical digital literacy curriculum that is integrated across study programs, with Washathiyah values as drawn from the Islamic scholarly tradition concerning tabayyun, tawazun, and maqashid serving as the epistemological framework, not merely as a branding label. (2) Teacher training programs that develop digital ethics facilitation competence should be prioritized, focusing on three complementary dimensions: technical, pedagogical, and ethical-spiritual (including the strengthening of muraqabah awareness as a complement to psychological self-awareness). (3) Longitudinal empirical research measuring the impact of Washathiyah-based digital literacy interventions on students' digital behavior and the quality of their cross-cultural interactions needs to be conducted to validate the theoretical framework proposed in this study. Such studies should avoid overstated causal claims regarding digital mental health, while taking into account the existing methodological debates in the literature (Orben & Przybylski, 2019; Twenge et al., 2023). (4) Collaboration among ELT, Psychology, and religious moderation study programs should be strengthened to produce a more comprehensive interdisciplinary approach. (5) The government should accelerate the equitable distribution of digital infrastructure as a prerequisite for the implementation of a just digital education. (6) Systematic institutional case studies of PTKIN that have developed policies related to religious moderation and/or digital literacy beginning with cases such as the UIN Mataram (2021) guidelines should be conducted to empirically substantiate the proposition that Islamic educational institutions can offer a model of digital literacy that surpasses existing global standards. 44 Soni Ariawan, et al: Global Communication Ethics and Digital Literacy … REFERENCES Annamalai, N., Abdullah, M. S., & Alasam, A. (2021). "WhatsApp-Mediated Language Learning: Student and Teacher Perspectives." TESOL Quarterly, 55(4), 1161-1176. Ariawan, S. Pemanfaatan Aplikasi HelloTalk dalam Peningkatan Kemampuan Speaking Mahasiswa EFL. Laporan internal, Universitas Islam Negeri Mataram (status: belum dipublikasikan secara formal). Bandura, A. (1977). Social Learning Theory. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. BNPT. (2023). Laporan Tahunan Pencegahan Radikalisasi Digital 2023. Jakarta: Badan Nasional Penanggulangan Terorisme. Boyd, D. (2014). It's Complicated: The Social Lives of Networked Teens. New Haven: Yale University Press. BPS. (2023). Statistik Telekomunikasi Indonesia 2023. Jakarta: Badan Pusat Statistik. Byram, M. (1997). Teaching and Assessing Intercultural Communicative Competence.

  GLOBAL COMMUNICATION ETHICS AND DIGITAL LITERACY: BUILDING A MODERATE VIRTUAL LEARNING SPACE IN THE CYBER ERA · 2026 · DOI

• The development of AI has brought fundamental change to human life while presenting complex ethical challenges. The ethical challenges of AI are not merely technical in dimension, but also touch a deeper realm: religious values, religious moderation, and social harmony.

  ETHICS OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE FROM A HADITH PERSPECTIVE: AFFIRMING MORAL RESPONSIBILITY AS THE FOUNDATION OF RELIGIOUS MODERATION IN THE DIGITAL ERA · 2026 · DOI

• Future research can explore the impact of digital fatwas on religious attitudes and behaviors. It can also examine the potential of digital media in promoting legal humanism in other contexts.

  Humanizing Islamic Legal Discourse in the Digital Public Space: A Maqāṣid Perspective of Buya Yahya’s Fatwas on LGBT · 2026 · DOI

• The phenomenon of echo chambers poses a challenge to the practice of catechesis in the digital era. There is a need to examine the phenomenon of echo chambers in relation to the spirituality of catechetical dialogue.

  Echo Chamber dan Spiritualitas Dialog Katekis dalam Terang Fratelli Tutti · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of understanding of the use of AI in spiritual contexts. The need to explore the implications of AI systems on users' experiences.

  Value-Sensitive AI for Prayer: Balancing the Agencies Between Human and AI Agents in Spiritual Context · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in understanding the impact of digital technology on religious authority and leadership. The research highlights the need to investigate how theological meaning is negotiated online.

  Negotiating Islamic Authority in Digital Public Space: Audience Contestation of Ustaz Evie Effendi’s “Misguided Prophet” Lecture on YouTube · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of a critical framework for understanding piety as a cultural phenomenon. The need to explore the relationship between religion, gender, and media in the digital age.

  Performing Piety in the Digital Sphere: Framing and Visual Mediation in Hawaariyyun’s Islamic Content · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the existing research on the impact of the internet on young people. The study highlights the need for a comprehensive understanding of the impact of the internet on young people.

  YOSHLARNING INTERNET VA IJTIMOIY TARMOQLARDAN FOYDALANISH MADANIYATI: IJTIMOIY-FALSAFIY TAHLIL · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies are encouraged to empirically examine how wisdom-based ethical frameworks can be institutionalized. Future research can explore the application of the paper's model in diverse socio-legal contexts.

  Wisdom in the Digital Era: Bridging Human Rights, Indonesian Cyber Law, and Progressive Fiqh · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Media, Religion, Digital Communication

• COVID‐19, Virtual Church Services and a New Temporary Geography of Home · Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie · 2020 · 76 citations
• The Digital Trinity—Controllable Human Evolution—Implicit Everyday Religion · KZfSS Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie · 2022 · 37 citations
• The myths and legends of king Satoshi and the knights of blockchain · Journal of Cultural Economy · 2021 · 30 citations
• Lived religion in a digital age: technology, affect and the pervasive space-times of ‘new’ religious praxis · Social & Cultural Geography · 2022 · 28 citations
• Flat-Smacked! Converting to Flat Eartherism · Journal of Media and Religion · 2020 · 27 citations
• Social media and terrorism discourse: the Islamic State’s (IS) social media discursive content and practices · Critical Discourse Studies · 2020 · 27 citations
• Mapping the absence: a theological critique of posthumanist influences in marketing and consumer research · Journal of Marketing Management · 2020 · 26 citations
• In God We Trust: Religiosity as a Predictor of Perceptions of Media Trust, Factuality, and Privacy Invasion · American Behavioral Scientist · 2010 · 24 citations
• What does the rise of digital religion during Covid-19 tell us about religion’s capacity to adapt? · Irish Journal of Sociology · 2020 · 23 citations
• Icons, Frames, and Language Games: Bruno Latour, On the Modern Cult of the Factish Gods · Technology and Culture · 2013 · 21 citations

Most recent work

• Africa’s clicks to faith: digital religious practices among transnational Nigerian and Zimbabwean youth in the diaspora · Ethnic and Racial Studies · 2026
• Grace and Community in the Age of AI: A Wesleyan-Theological Dialogue on Digital Technology and Religious Education · Religious Education · 2026
• A critical review of AI-enhanced communication strategies in Southeast Asian startup ecosystems · Frontiers in Human Dynamics · 2026
• Algorithmic-Adaptive Islamic Communication Strategy: Building Hybrid and Ideological Resilience through Palestinian Solidarity Narratives · Riwayat Educational Journal of History and Humanities · 2026
• Religious education and catechesis of the synodal church: a polarisation, an aeropagus, and an oasis in the artificial intelligence era · International Studies in Catholic Education · 2026
• Homo Viator or Algorithmus Viator? · Scientia et Fides · 2026
• La mediatización religiosa y lo necrológico · InMediaciones de la Comunicación · 2026
• Digital Distortion of Religious Preaching: An Analysis of Abuse of Da’wah Activities on Social Media · Suhuf · 2026
• The Digital Landscape of God: Narrative, Visuals and Viewer Engagement of Religious Videos on YouTube · Proceedings of the International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media · 2026
• Reactive Synchronization Civilization — Boundary, Synchronization, and Subjectless Civilizational Structure — · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026

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