Open research questions in Second Language Learning and Teaching

What the literature leaves open

• Future research might examine whether readiness profiles, pedagogical strategies, and professional development needs vary systematically by discipline. Future research should examine how novel tools such as advanced language models, automated translation systems, AI-driven assessment platforms, and immersive learning environments can be leveraged pedagogically in EMI contexts. Study Limitations This study presents several limitations requiring consideration when interpreting findings. However, infrastructure alone is insufficient.

  Pedagogical and AI-aware readiness of EMI instructors in higher education · 2026 · DOI

• their environment (Torkelson & Said, 2024; Tummons, 2024) Even though this study offers valuable insights, it is paramount to recognize its limitations. The in-depth exploratory qualitative data does not provide any statistical generalization. Also, using convenience sampling and the researchers’ dual roles as instructors may have introduced bias in the data collection process. Future research could build on these findings in several ways. A mixed-methods approach could connect the qualitative development of agency and 4 Cs with quantitative language proficiency data. Additionally, longitudinal studies could examine how well these skills are retained and transferred to other academic areas over time.

  Fostering Learner Agency and 21st Century Skills through Linguistic Landscape in a Tertiary Context · 2026 · DOI

• These findings reaffirm prior research that acceleration alone is insufficient for linguistically diverse students unless accompanied by intentional supports (Avni & Finn, 2021; Melguizo et al.

  Serving English Learners Under HB 2223: A Qualitative Analysis of Corequisite Reform Implementation in Texas · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the synthesis of findings across the 3 clusters, the current study recommends the following: (1) Developing ESP curricula for neglected disciplines ensuring that specialized domains receive the same pedagogical attention as traditionally dominant fields. (2) Universities should create dedicated ESP units or centers that support long-term curriculum development, material design, and teacher training, rather than relying on ad-hoc or instructor-driven initiatives. (3) ESP instructors should work systematically with subject-matter experts to co-design materials, validate terminology, and ensure that course content reflects authentic disciplinary practices and epistemologies. (4) There is a need to build discipline-specific corpora in Arabic and English, especially in under-represented fields, to support material development, terminology research, and data-driven instruction tailored to regional academic contexts. (5) ESP programs should explicitly teach students how to navigate databases, evaluate online sources, use AI responsibly, and manage multimodal information in their disciplines. (6) Future research should include cross-institutional collaborations that compare ESP needs, practices, and outcomes across regions, enabling benchmarking and the identification of shared challenges. (7) Given the scarcity of published ESP research from the Arab countries, institutions should support publication, documentation, and open-access dissemination of ESP models, assessments, and instructional innovations.

  Three Decades of ESP Innovation: A Review of Research Across Specialized and Underexplored Domains · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this study, which document inadequate staffing, high student–faculty ratios, and large course enrolments across language, linguistics, and translation courses, this study recommends the following to improve instructional quality and ensure sustainable program development in Saudi universities: (i) (ii) (iii) Setting a maximum section size for skills-based courses such as listening, speaking, writing, and translation which require intensive interaction and individualized feedback rather than lecturing. It is recommended that section sizes for these courses not exceed 25 students, in line with international standards for skills-based instruction. Establishing a centralized database for enrolment and staffing data to record number of sections, number of students per section, faculty teaching loads, class size trends over time. Such a system would support evidence-based decision-making and prevent the recurrence of chronic overcrowding. Encouraging further research on class size and learning outcomes to examine. the impact of class size on student performance, differences across disciplines and the relationship between teaching load and assessment quality. Such studies would deepen understanding of the structural issues affecting language and translation programs. (v) (iv) Universities should conduct prediction studies using enrolment trends from previous semesters, recruitment status and faculty availability and projected graduation and retention rates. Such predictive models would allow departments to plan months in advance, rather than a few weeks before the start of the academic year, ensuring adequate staffing and preventing overcrowded sections. To expand staffing options, language and translation programs can utilize remote recruitment, remote interviews for international candidates, and remote or hybrid teaching arrangements which can serve as a practical, cost-effective solution to chronic understaffing, especially in specialized courses. To prevent the current language and translation faculty attrition, the college should adopt a structured retention strategy that includes balanced workloads for early-career returnees, transparent promotion pathways, competitive incentives, and proactive integration into academic roles. Such measures would reduce attrition to external public and private sectors and help stabilize long-term staffing capacity.

  Inadequate Staffing and Large Class Sizes in Saudi EFL and Translation Programs: An Integrative Analysis of Empirical Studies · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could examine the current staffing status in 2026 to determine whether the return of graduates on a scholarship from abroad and recent recruitment reforms have improved the staffing status and class sizes. Comparative studies of men’s and women’s campuses would shed light on persistent gendered disparities. Additional research is needed on the impact of digital and remote recruitment practices, particularly in the post‑pandemic era. Finally, studies focusing on translation programs could explore how staffing levels and instructor specialization influence student outcomes and professional readiness.

  Inadequate Staffing and Large Class Sizes in Saudi EFL and Translation Programs: An Integrative Analysis of Empirical Studies · 2026 · DOI

• This finding indicates that curriculum reform alone is insufficient without accompanying transformations in instructional delivery, assessment methods, and the multidimensional implementation challenges identified in this study—encompassing resource limitations, pedagogical difficulties, and cultural factors—collectively constrain the effectiveness of OBE-based English instruction.

  An Evaluation of English Language Learning Based on Outcome-Based Education (OBE) in Higher Education · 2026 · DOI

• For Policymakers National educational technology policy should explicitly address AI integration in ELT, establishing clear standards for platform evaluation, data privacy, cultural appropriateness, and pedagogical effectiveness. The Ministry of Education should develop a national AI in ELT framework that guides institutional adoption, coordinates research, and ensures equitable access across geographic and socioeconomic divides. Investment in national broadband infrastructure for schools and in device provision programmes should be sustained and accelerated, with particular attention to underserved regions. Regulatory frameworks for educational AI, including assessment integrity policies and data protection standards, should be developed proactively rather than reactively. Engagement with international AI governance processes—including UNESCO's AI in Education initiatives—would allow Saudi policymakers to contribute to and benefit from global norm-setting in this domain. Public funding for Saudi-specific research on AI ELT interventions, including longitudinal studies with adequate sample sizes and rigorous comparison conditions, is urgently needed to build the local evidence base that contextually appropriate policy development requires. 6.2 For Curriculum Designers ELT curricula at all levels should be reviewed and revised to incorporate AI-integrated learning pathways that leverage the personalisation, feedback, and practice opportunities that AI tools provide while ensuring that human-mediated communicative, collaborative, and critical learning activities remain central. Curriculum frameworks should explicitly address the development of AI literacy competencies—helping learners to understand, evaluate, and critically engage with AI-generated language—as an embedded dimension of English language education rather than an add-on. Assessment design must evolve to maintain validity in an AI-saturated environment. Curriculum designers should prioritise assessment modalities—spoken performance, collaborative tasks, process portfolios, in-class writing—that resist AI-facilitated completion and that provide richer and more authentic evidence of learner competence than traditional written examinations. Explicit guidance on the ethical and pedagogically appropriate use of AI tools within assessed tasks should be integrated into curriculum documentation. 6.3 For ELT Practitioners English teachers in Saudi Arabia should be supported and encouraged to develop informed, critical, and creative orientations toward AI tools rather than either wholesale embrace or reflexive rejection.

  Increasing AI Intervention in ELT: A Prognosis of Saudi Context · 2026 · DOI

• What remains to be developed, with urgency and care, is the institutional, pedagogical, and regulatory ecosystem that enables AI to realise its potential while safeguarding the relational, cultural, and ethical dimensions of education that make learning genuinely human.

  Increasing AI Intervention in ELT: A Prognosis of Saudi Context · 2026 · DOI

• Promote Education and Awareness: It is essential to create educational programs that promote mutual understanding and cultural awareness for both immigrants and natives of the host country. These programs may include workshops, talks, and events that highlight the importance of cultural diversity and mutual respect. Facilitate Intercultural Dialogue: Safe spaces for intercultural dialogue should be created, where immigrants and natives can share their experiences and better understand each other's perspectives. These exchanges can help reduce prejudice and stereotypes. Incorporate Interculturality into Education: Educational programs should integrate intercultural education into the curriculum, from early childhood to higher education. This may include teaching the history and culture of diverse communities, as well as activities that promote intercultural understanding and respect. Promote Empathy: Fostering empathy is crucial. Educational programs and public campaigns can focus on immigrant life stories and promote empathy toward their challenges and achievements. This can help build a more understanding and supportive society.

  Development of Intercultural Competence in the Context of Teaching Spanish as a Foreign Language in China: An Interactive Role-Playing Approach · 2026 · DOI

• This study, therefore, suggests that teacher trainers should conduct more in-service training to enable teachers to master how to teach using other innovative pedagogies like multiculturalism and service learning. Secondly, we recommend that policymakers provide enough resources for teaching international languages. 148 | This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. East African Journal of Education Studies, Volume 9, Issue 2, 2026 Article DOI: https://doi.org/10.37284/eajes.9.2.4804 Limitations of the Study: Due to limited funding and time, we were only able to conduct the study with a few participants and two international languages. Therefore, future researchers should conduct a country-wide survey on teaching international languages using more participants.

  Exploring the Methods and Challenges of Teaching International Languages under the Competence-Based Curriculum: A Case of English and French Languages in Uganda · 2026 · DOI

• ICAO Doc 8973 – Aviation Security Manual Provides practical guidance to help countries and airports implement effective aviation security measures Stresses the need for clear and effective communication, especially in English, during routine and emergency operations - Aviation security officers (AvSec) - Screening staff - Supervisors - Emergency response teams - Airport and airline personnel involved in security English is necessary to: - Communicate with foreign passengers - Report threats clearly - Coordinate with international agencies Training programs should include: - Basic and intermediate English - Security-specific vocabulary - Role plays and practical scenarios in English Operational Use of English Personnel should use English…

  English Language Learning in Encouraging the Aviation Security: Case Study at Vocational Training Program · 2026 · DOI

• While the findings are promising, they also point to the need for further research on AI- supported translanguaging, particularly in classrooms with more than two target languages and in subjects beyond mathematics.

  AI-Supported Translanguaging Processes in Primary School: Empirical Insights into ChatGPT’s Role in Multilingual Interactions · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should examine the social validity of peer-mediated interventions from both teacher and student perspectives, explore longer intervention periods, and test implementation across diverse EB populations and contexts.

  Effects of a Classwide Peer-Mediated Literacy Intervention for Latine Emergent Bilingual Students · 2026 · DOI

• There is, however, little known about whether and in what ways tertiary-level LRI-based approach can be realized and contribute to students’ empowered identities as legitimate participants in the consumption, construction, and representation of disciplinary knowledge.

  “Be brave to seek our own opinions” · 2026 · DOI

• The MoPSE needs to develop a clear strategy for how learners' L1 should be used in the classroom, as current practices vary widely among teachers.

  Scaffolding STEM education through translanguaging · 2026 · DOI

• Despite evidence of SRL’s positive impact, research indicates that Colombian university students, par- ticularly in English courses, often lack SRL (Cuesta Medina et al., 2017). This gap suggests a need for early intervention. Pre-academic programs focused on SRL and language learning strategies could equip students with tools to achieve success in English development. In addition, teachers can incorporate student journals and portfolios to facilitate SRL. Journals help students keep track of and reflect on their progress and strategies, fostering self-awareness and adaptability (Cox, 2022). Portfolios, on the other hand, serve as performance records, enabling critical self-analysis (Padilla et al., 1996). Furthermore, instructors diligently strive to enhance student motivation. Targeting this motiva- tion toward purposeful language learning is crucial. Instructors should help learners connect their English studies to specific goals, whether for future careers, cultural enrichment, or personal enjoyment. This facilitates learning engagement and achievement (Zim- merman, 2002). To address instructors’ unfamiliarity with SRL, universities can facilitate communities of practice and professional development programs to explore SRL and other effective pedagogies that support successful learning. Lastly, transitioning to learner-centered roles is crucial. Reducing instructor control enhances students’ engagement and supports them in becoming proactive participants in their English language education.

  Self-Regulated Learning in English Language Instruction at Colombian Universities: Teachers’ Perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• Future research is needed to expand on the analysis of how such a ‘complexity of cultural practices and relations’ can be part of L2 courses. Further research on the design and application of activities addressing cultural artefacts would also cater for those teachers who do not fully feel comfortable with the teaching of controversial cultural topics and, as Menard-Warwick (2009) suggests, to “make sure students with unpopular viewpoints are heard” (p.

  Intercultural learning and motivation in the second language classroom: Intersecting teacher and student perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• Predictors CLIL knowledge CLIL experiences B .671 .062 SE b .083 .059 𝛽 .621 .081 R2 .463 ∆ R2 .463 F (sig) 77.637 *** Note: B: unstandardized coefficients B; SE b: unstandardized coefficients std. error, 𝛽: standardized coefficients beta, R2: R square, ∆ R2: Adjusted R square. *** = p < .001. Prior to conducting the multiple regression analysis, key statistical assumptions are examined. Linearity is assessed using scatterplots of standardized residuals against predicted values, indicating an approximately linear relationship (Field, 2018). Independence of errors is supported by the Durbin–Watson statistic (DW = 1.55), which falls within the commonly accepted range suggesting minimal autocorrelation (Field, 2018). Multicollinearity is not a concern, as tolerance values are .50 and VIF values are 1.996, well within recommended cutoffs (Field, 2018). Examination of standardized residuals suggests approximate normality, with residuals centered around zero (M = .00, International Online Journal of Primary Education 11 IOJPE ISSN: 1300 – 915X www.iojpe.org International Online Journal of Primary Education 2026, volume 15, issue 1 SD = .99), and the residuals-versus-predicted plot does not indicate problematic heteroscedasticity (Field, 2018). Potential outliers are screened using standardized residuals, with no evidence of extreme values beyond commonly used thresholds (|z| > 3.29) (Field, 2018). Overall, the assumptions for multiple regression are adequately met. The regression analysis reveals positive relationships between teachers’ knowledge and experiences and their views on CLIL with elementary students in terms of supporting language skills and subject knowledge development. In more detail, teachers’ knowledge shows a significantly strong and positive correlation with their perceived suitability of CLIL (r = .678, p < .001), while their teaching experiences also exhibit a moderately positive and significant correlation with these views (r = .520, p < .001). These results suggest that teachers who are more knowledgeable and experienced in CLIL tend to perceive it as more appropriate and beneficial for elementary students. Furthermore, Table 9 indicates that CLIL knowledge is a significant predictor of teachers’ perspectives (β = .621, p < .001), accounting for 46.3% of the variance (R² = .463). In contrast, CLIL experiences do not significantly contribute to the model (β = .081, p > .05). This suggests that it is their understanding of CLIL, rather than mere teaching experience, that most strongly shaped their perceived appropriateness and value of CLIL for elementary students. Specifically, Ai shared, “When understanding how to balance both language and content objectives, I could teach CLIL lessons to my students effectively.” Duyen emphasized that her growing familiarity with CLIL principles through workshops allowed her to recognize its effectiveness in enhancing students’ language proficiency. Similarly, Bao noted that with more accurate insights from some training programs, he became better at selecting appropriate strategies, making CLIL lessons more accessible to his students. These reflections illustrate how sufficient expertise shapes teachers’ well-informed perceptions of CLIL with elementary students. Differences in Teachers’ Perspectives on CLIL by Language Proficiency Levels To examine whether there are significant differences in teachers’ perspectives on CLIL across three English proficiency groups: low, intermediate, and advanced, a one-way ANOVA was conducted (see Table 10). Table 10. Differences in teachers’ perspectives on CLIL across three levels of English proficiency.

  EXPLORING VIETNAMESE PRIMARY SCHOOL TEACHERS’ KNOWLEDGE, EXPERIENCES, AND PERSPECTIVES IN CLIL IMPLEMENTATION · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should explore CRP implementation across diverse geographical settings, examine longitudinal impacts, and investigate how specific cultural backgrounds interact with various CRP approaches. However, the success of this transformation depends heavily on instructor competence in cultural mediation and institutional support for such approaches, factors that extend beyond the scope of this study but represent important considerations for broader implementation.

  Enhancing Academic Writing Skills through Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A Study in EAP Courses for International Students · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the study findings, it is recommended that: 1. Thamar University should integrate both brain-based learning strategies in addition to creating creative methodologies, in order to enhance both student engagement and improve their proficiency level in relation to the English language. 2. The University should offer opportunities for professional development to English instructors to learn about, then apply, innovative teaching practices that support their work as English educators. 3. Further studies should explore the efficacy of brain-based learning methods, and innovative teaching practices, in relation to the improvement of individual language skills (e.g. speaking, writing). 4. In developing course curriculum for English as a second language, curriculum developers should consider the use of brain-based learning and innovative teaching approaches.

  A Proposed Vision for Developing English Language Teaching in Light of Creative Teaching Skills and Brain-Based Education: A Case Study of Thamar University, Yemen · 2026 · DOI

• https://www.nectfl.org/wpcontent/uploads/2016/06/review62.pdf #page=11 from Allen, H. W., & Paesani, K. (2010). Exploring the feasibility of a pedagogy of multiliteracies in introductory foreign language courses. L2 Journal, 2(1), 119-142. https://doi.org/10.5070/L2219064 Aski, J. M. (2008). Foreign language textbook activities: Keeping pace with second language acquisition research. Foreign Language Annals, 36(1), 57-65. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1944-9720.2003.tb01932.x Askildson, V. (2008). What do teachers and students want from a foreign Arizona.

  The role of multiliteracies in language teaching in Greek secondary education · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could address these constraints by including a larger, more diverse sample from different universities, incorporating multiple reflective essays over time, and employing independent evaluators to minimize potential bias. This reflective-essay-based study aimed to contribute to our knowledge on English teacher trainees’ views on the good language teacher in Hungary, an area that has been underexplored in recent research.

  Defining the Good Language Teacher: Perspectives of English Pre-service Teachers in Hungary · 2026 · DOI

• 1. Modern technological means of telecommunication, and most particularly Internet, have enabled those in possession of such means to transmit any kind of ‘message’. As a result, the language teacher should be very cautious and selective concerning the mass media materials (discourse) she/he would use in classrooms. 2. In opposition, the influential impact of communication/information can also serve in the promotion of understanding among peoples and nations and the safeguard of peace in the world through global dialogue using the English language as a lingua franca. 3. Because man has always attached such importance to the role assumed or could be assumed by the mass media towards the elimination of prejudices (better awareness of target culture). 100 acadeMicus inTernaTional scienTiFic Journal acadeMicus.edu.al 100 4. At a macro-level, FLL would make it possible to establish societies which would be more and more respectful to human rights and also the protection of the environment. 5. Indeed, many human communities which would be able to ‘communicate’ through the English language; would be more capable and keen with regard to the eradication of poverty, ignorance, diseases and famines. 6. Some readjustment measures and perspectives can be launched and put into application following the right path toward a free, balanced flow of information for the fulfilment of some necessary requirements as follows: - Avoidance of one-sided dissemination of news and the encouragement of a multidimensional flow of information with plural feedback. - Promotion of communication from a status of misapprehension to a decisive factor in mutual understanding between peoples through the development of multilateral exchange of information. - Elimination of obstacles to the free circulation of educational material and to the movement of persons.

  Integrating Mass-Media Discourse in Algerian EFL Classrooms: Pedagogical Insights and Challenges · 2026 · DOI

• Abstract A critical perspectives approach to teaching and learning English as a foreign language is a relatively recent practice in the global South, and even though there are reports that explain how this approach is enacted in the curriculum, few studies have been conducted on how teacher educators and pre-service teachers deal with its implementation in their everyday practices.

  Exploring critical perspectives in English teaching and learning at a Colombian university · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Second Language Learning and Teaching

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• Learning Problems of Overseas Students: Two Sides of a Story · Higher Education Research & Development · 1987 · 165 citations
• English as <i>Tyrannosaurus rex</i> · World Englishes · 1997 · 142 citations
• Language and communication in international students’ adaptation: a bibliometric and content analysis review · Higher Education · 2022 · 130 citations
• Leveled and Exclusionary Tracking · American Educational Research Journal · 2016 · 128 citations
• The effectiveness of machine translation in foreign language education: a systematic review and meta-analysis · Computer Assisted Language Learning · 2021 · 127 citations

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