Open research questions in Multilingual Education and Policy

What the literature leaves open

• Future research should explore holistic, collaborative, and methodologically diverse evidence-based approaches to stimulate better skills and implement effective practices for multilingual learners with ID.

  Mapping Literacy Practices in Bilingual Contexts for Individuals With Intellectual Disabilities: A Scoping Review · 2026 · DOI

• This study recommends that code-switching must be strategically integrated into Sesotho classroom pedagogy as a supportive tool for comprehension, especially when introducing complex or abstract concepts. However, educators must exercise caution to ensure that code-switching does not compromise learners’ acquisition of Sesotho vocabulary and grammatical structures. It is essential to create deliberate opportunities for learners to engage deeply with Sesotho, both orally and in writing, to strengthen their linguistic competence. Teachers must be supported through professional development to balance multilingual teaching strategies with language preservation goals.

  Code-switching as an Instructional Strategy in a Multilingual Classroom Setting: Examining Its Effects on the instruction of the Sesotho Home Language · 2026 · DOI

• that multilingualism is This situation is further elaborated on by Djite (2008), who says that, if multilingualism is an enduring feature of Africa, it is not limited to Africa, and it is far from chaotic.

  Multilingualism as a Resource for Literacy Acquisition and Development in Primary Schools in Uganda · 2026 · DOI

• transformation are represented in LPF (2020). The analysis followed a systematic, multistage process of reading the policy framework. Firstly, the policy document was read multiple times to familiarise with the overall structure, stated objectives and recurring terminology. During these readings, analytic notes were made on key terms, emphases and absences related to language, transformation, knowledge production and institutional responsibility. Secondly, the six WPR questions were operationalised as interpretive prompts guiding close textual analysis as shown in Figure 2. Thirdly, illustrative quotations were selected based on their relevance to dominant representations identified through this process. Quotations were chosen because they exemplified recurring framings and not because they singularly supported the argument. Alternative readings were considered during the analysis, particularly where passages appeared ambiguous or internally contradictory. Rigour, trustworthiness and reflexivity To strengthen methodological rigour, the study draws on established qualitative criteria for trustworthiness (as outlined in Anney 2015). Credibility was enhanced through prolonged engagement with the policy text, repeated readings and iterative comparison across sections of the document to ensure consistency of interpretation. Interpretive claims were grounded in explicit textual evidence, and strong theoretical inferences were presented as analytical arguments as opposed to definitive policy effects. Confirmability was addressed through collaborative analysis amongst the authors. Interpretations were discussed, challenged and refined through analytic dialogue, reducing the likelihood of idiosyncratic or unchecked readings. Analytic notes were retained to provide an audit trail of interpretive decisions. Transferability is necessarily limited by the study’s focus on a single national policy framework. The analysis speaks to macro-level policy discourse and does not claim applicability to implementation contexts or outcomes. Reflexivity was integral to the analytical process. The engagement with decolonial theory shaped the interpretive perspective and created a risk of confirmation speculation. To mitigate this, attention was paid to passages that complicated or resisted decolonial readings, and claims about epistemic effects were carefully distinguished from what is explicitly stated.

  Multilingualism and transformation in South African higher education language policy framework: A Bacchian analysis · 2026 · DOI

• Further research is needed regarding the implications of literacy as an identity in understanding agency, development, and adult literacy programming development, in order to understand the dangers and potential opportunities of this conception. By focusing specifically on women’s literacy experiences, this study fills a critical gap in the literature, providing insight into how adult literacy programs can be designed to address both gender and structural inequities.

  Becoming a Knowing Person: How Women in a Dominican Batey Understand Literacy · 2026 · DOI

• Hence, future research should consider expanding the geographic and institutional scope of the study to include private universities, rural institutions, and other Southeast Asian countries where CEFR is being integrated.

  Decolonising CEFR: Resistance by University English Language Teachers in Southeast Asia · 2026 · DOI

• As Zapata and Laman (2023) have argued, translingual spaces that do not interrogate deficit ideologies fall short; “just cultivating spaces for students’ fluid language use is insufficient as it fails to acknowledge the institutional bias that limits linguistically minoritized speakers and learners” (p.

  Navigating Tensions: The Dynamic Growth of Preservice Teachers Critical Translingual Stance in Partnership with Refugee Children · 2026 · DOI

• This mindset is also evident in some research on PT, where the focus is changing teachers’ perceptions of PT (Prilutskaya, 2021), rather than listening to teachers and considering PT’s impact on social justice—including in relation to learning outcomes—as an open question. These considerations are especially urgent immigrant education settings, which vary widely and cannot be assumed to be similar.

  Evaluating Pedagogic Translanguaging: Priorities in Foregrounding Context · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could address these limitations by examining similar community-engaged teacher education interventions across multiple programs and by following participants into their early careers to observe actual classroom practice over time. We acknowledge several limitations of this study and suggest directions for future research.

  Enacting Translanguaging Pedagogy through Informal Family Research: Preparing Elementary Preservice Teachers for Linguistic Justice with Refugee and Immigrant Children · 2026 · DOI

• raciolinguistic is consistent with a framework (Flores & Rosa, 2015), which warns that even well-intentioned “additive bilingual” models can inadvertently reinforce racialized hierarchies. From a raciolinguistic viewpoint, simply allowing occasional home language use is not enough if underlying biases about language superiority remain unchallenged. Therefore, our theoretical lens merges translanguaging with a critical stance that teachers must actively work to decolonize language practices in the classroom, interrogating and undoing the notion that academic knowledge can only be constructed through “standard” English. We aimed to cultivate in PSTs what Baker-Bell (2020) calls a stance of linguistic justice. She argues that teachers should be aware of their role in reversing linguistic oppression and creating educational spaces where multilingualism is the norm and a source of pride. In practice, this framework influenced the design of the PSTs’ learning experiences in our study. We deliberately structured the FLOA project around the idea that PSTs need to see translanguaging in action in real contexts in order to grasp its instructional significance. Through observing families in an informal environment, PSTs ventured into a translanguaging space beyond the school walls, witnessing how meaning-making occurs fluidly across languages and modes. We anchored reflective discussions in the concept of funds of knowledge (González et al., 2005), operating on the understanding that families hold rich knowledge and cultural resources that should inform teaching. The literature points to several key levers for new teachers to cultivate a translanguaging stance (García et al., 2017): (a) engaging in critical reflection to disrupt monolingual biases and deficit perspectives about linguistic diversity; (b) gaining direct exposure to the assets of students’ home languages and cultures through community engagement; and (c) having opportunities to plan and implement translanguaging strategies, ideally with guidance or mentorship. Our research extends this work by involving PSTs in an informal family research project that brings together all three aspects. This approach aligns with recent calls in the field. García et al. (2021) have urged teacher education to center community and family ways of knowing as part of a translanguaging “manifesto” for equity, and Seltzer (2022) argues that preservice teachers need explicit support to adopt a translanguaging stance in their teaching practice. Thus, the theoretical orientation underlying our study intertwines translanguaging, critical sociocultural views of language (addressing power and identity), and asset-based pedagogy (recognizing community knowledge). This integrative lens guided our approach to analyzing PSTs’ learning. We specifically looked for evidence that PSTs were developing a translanguaging pedagogical stance, that they were becoming critically aware of linguistic power dynamics, and that they were recognizing students’ home language learning. Our practices as valuable assets theoretical and methodological orientation reflects our goal of not only observing PST change but also actively engineering experiences that facilitate such change through a design-based research approach in teacher education.

  Enacting Translanguaging Pedagogy through Informal Family Research: Preparing Elementary Preservice Teachers for Linguistic Justice with Refugee and Immigrant Children · 2026 · DOI

• In an emerging field of research, a lack of consensus regarding key definitions is inevitable (Billingsley, 2004; Mason & Poyatos Matas, 2015), but the result is that the findings from each study may not be able to be generalized to a wider population of teachers.

  Early-Career Language Teachers and Critical Incidents: Agency as a Driver of Identity Construction · 2026 · DOI

• Future research might investigate how the enabling conditions identified here operate in educational settings where students are developing rather than already possessing such metalinguistic and theoretical resources. 5 Limitations and future directions Several limitations of this study warrant acknowledgement.

  “Insufficiently Korean” to strategic meaning-maker: textual transpositioning and multilingual identity work · 2026 · DOI

• This suggests that multilingualism in Kazakhstan should be examined not only through language policy, but also through digital authorship and professional text production. This support should not be limited to the requirement to “speak Kazakh”; on the contrary, it should include the ability of scientific supervisors and teachers to accept academic texts in Kazakh, provide quality feedback, and provide access to resources for developing a scientific style in Kazakh.

  Between Text and Code: Translingual Practices and the Expansion of Philological Inquiry in Kazakhstan · 2026 · DOI

• Several limitations should be considered when interpreting the findings of this study. First, the sample size, particularly within the experimental component, was relatively small. This limits the extent to which the findings can be generalized to the broader population of Kazakh-Russian bilingual youth. Second, participants were recruited primarily from urban multilingual environments and may not fully represent bilingual speakers from rural regions or different educational contexts. In addition, lexical retrieval performance was assessed through manually recorded observations rather than computerized reaction-time measurements. Although standardized evaluation criteria were applied consistently throughout the experiment, minor variations in recording and interpretation may have influenced the results. Furthermore, the experimental procedure employed in this study does not permit definitive conclusions regarding the precise mechanisms and temporal characteristics of lexical retrieval, as computerized reaction-time measures were not included. Future studies may benefit from employing standardized psycholinguistic methodologies, such as picture-naming tasks or reaction-time paradigms, in order to improve measurement precision. The study also relied partly on self-reported survey responses, which may be affected by subjective perceptions and recall bias. Finally, this research focused specifically on Kazakh-Russian bilingual adolescents. Future investigations should examine larger and more diverse samples, incorporate objective psycholinguistic measures, and compare bilingual groups with different language dominance profiles.

  Code-Switching as a Cognitive Adaptation Strategy: Lexical Retrieval and Language Selection Among Kazakh-Russian Bilingual Youth · 2026 · DOI

• Taking into consideration the key findings, researchers recommend an enhanced delivery of educational services to Agta-Tabangnon in particular and to the IP learners at large. Implementation of L1 as a medium of instruction should not be for primary grades exclusively, but for all IP learners as well, to recognize and preserve their unique language features. Similarly, the Integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Practices (IKSP) that are unique to the tribe is also recommended to make the lesson more relevant and meaningful. Teacher training on the culture, beliefs, and practices of the community will help educators to be aware of the leaners’ background and identity. Community-based tourism and livelihood programs have also been recommended to augment the economic status of IP and of the learners in the process. Ample resource allocation is necessary to bring fair and quality government service to the native people worldwide.

  Lexical Equivalents in Native Tongue and L2 behind Agta-Tabangnon’s Ethnomathematics and Cultural Practices · 2026 · DOI

• In light of these limitations, concrete recommendations for future research have been developed to support the ecological sustainability of the language. Future research should be conducted long-term, mixed-method field studies that evaluate the intergenerational impacts of language policies and alphabet reform. Participatory research models that systematize the social impact assessment of language policies and center stakeholder participation should be encouraged. With regard to cultural sustainability, applied studies are needed that explore how traditional knowledge systems can be effectively integrated into modern educational curricula. The key recommendation for policymakers is to move from a reactive approach to language planning towards a data-driven and flexible governance approach that proactively supports the language ecosystem. Finally, future research could benefit from developing a more structured analytical framework that helps organize the currently fragmented indicators. Such a framework could consist of multiple layers—conceptual indicators (clarity of definitions, theoretical coherence), methodological indicators (data type, measurement validity), contextual indicators (sociopolitical conditions, linguistic ecology), and applied indicators (policy relevance, practical uptake). A multi-layered, indicator-based structure of this kind would reduce fragmentation in the literature and enable more holistic, comparable evaluations across studies.

  Preserving the Naturalness of the Kazakh Language as a National Language: An Ecolinguistic Analysis · 2026 · DOI

• It remains to be investigated, however, how commu- nities that are less well-established, organised and privileged are able to rely on community-driven HLE in Sweden.

  Building resilience in times of turbulence: agentive responses to changing conditions for Greek heritage language education in Sweden · 2026 · DOI

• d the way you communicate might change in the future? If yes, what do you think might lead to these chang- es, and how would you go about making them? Is there anything else you feel is important and has not been addressed that you would like to add? Main goals To explore the linguistic practices within the fam- ily space and its use across temporal and spatial contexts, while identifying potential multilingual interactions that may reflect shifts across scales.

  A chronotopic-scalar approach to family language policy research: the case of Azerbaijanis in Iran · 2026 · DOI

• By examining pre-service teachers’ agency in the context of family–school coopera- tion, an area that remains underexplored in the literature, this study extends the con- ceptual scope of language teacher agency beyond the classroom and highlights the need to prepare future educators for relational work with families as part of their pro- fessional repertoire. Furthermore, echoing Iversen’s (2024) findings and the authors’ awareness of the teacher education programmes at two of Norway’s major universities where they are affiliated, this study highlights that mere inclu- sion of such concepts in teacher education programmes is insufficient to support pre- service language teachers’ agency development.

  Pre-service teachers’ perceived agency in developing family–school cooperation for language learning · 2026 · DOI

• This study contributes empirical insight into the tensions between the potential of AI and sociolinguistic integrity in an under-researched multilingual CODeL setting.

  Practitioner perspectives on artificial intelligence-assisted translation of study material in a comprehensive, open, distance and e-Learning institution · 2026 · DOI

• This paper challenges the WEIRD (Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, and Democratic) monoculture in developmental science by investigating language socialization in a vastly understudied context: young Emirati children in the United Arab Emirates.

  Reframing Childhood: How Language, Kinship, and Multilingual Multigenerational Socialization Shape the Emirati Child · 2026 · DOI

• Ernest ELF‑compatible “an English teacher must know the standard and be able to break it.” “what the standard does is impose a single model on others.”

  Identity at the crossroads: ELF-compatible, ambivalent and normative perspectives among English teacher educators · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings, several recommendations emerge to strengthen linguistic inclusivity in WSU’s digital communication. These recommendations are grounded in participant perspectives and address the intersecting challenges of language dominance, digital literacy and technological access.

  Digitally mediated teaching and learning and linguistic inclusivity at Walter Sisulu University: Towards a culturally responsive digital learning environment · 2026 · DOI

• The recommendations emerging from this study are organised according to key stakeholder groups and are further differentiated between short‑term feasible actions and longer‑term systemic reforms. This structure is intended to enhance the practical applicability and policy relevance of the findings. 5.1 Teacher Education Institutions In the short term, teacher education programmes should strengthen pre‑service preparation for mother‑tongue (MT) instruction by integrating structured coursework on bilingual and multilingual pedagogies, translanguaging approaches, and MT literacy development. Practical components, including micro‑teaching, lesson simulations, and supervised teaching practice, should explicitly foreground MT‑based instruction to ensure that student teachers develop confidence and pedagogical competence before entering the profession (Makalela, 2021). Universities can further support this process by modelling MT instruction through exemplars, tutorials, and mentorship from experienced lecturers and mentor teachers. In the longer term, MT pedagogy should be institutionalised within Foundation Phase teacher education curricula as a core professional competence rather than a supplementary topic. This may involve revising programme learning outcomes, strengthening practicum assessment criteria related to language use, and fostering sustained collaboration between universities and rural schools to ensure coherence between theory and classroom practice. 5.2 Practicum Schools and Mentor Teachers In the short term, practicum schools should be supported to model consistent MT practices during teaching practice. Professional development workshops and mentoring sessions for in‑service and mentor teachers can equip them with http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter 730 strategies to support student teachers in implementing MT instruction and translanguaging practices effectively (Mkhize & Balfour, 2021; Probyn, 2024). In the longer term, systematic investment in mentor teacher development is required to align pre‑service training with classroom realities. Recognising and incentivising mentor teachers who effectively support MT instruction may contribute to improving the quality and sustainability of teaching practice experiences in rural schools. 5.3 Education Departments In the short term, education departments should prioritise the equitable provision of MT teaching and learning resources, including textbooks, storybooks, visual aids, and digital materials in learners’ home languages. Curriculum‑aligned teacher guides would further support both novice and experienced teachers in implementing MT instruction effectively, particularly in resource‑constrained rural contexts (Sibanda, 2023). In the longer term, policy coherence and systemic support for MT instruction are essential. Education authorities should monitor MT implementation in rural schools, provide guidance on curriculum adaptation, and align assessment frameworks to recognise MT instruction as a legitimate and valued pedagogical practice rather than an optional or transitional approach. 5.4 Communities and Parents In the short term, schools, teacher education institutions, and local education authorities should collaborate with parents and community leaders to raise awareness of the cognitive, academic, and cultural benefits of MT‑based learning. This can be achieved through parent workshops, school meetings, and community forums. In the longer term, sustained community engagement initiatives are required to shift societal perceptions that prioritise English over MT instruction. Creating community‑level support for MT use in early education can contribute to more enabling environments for linguistically responsive teaching and learning.

  Student Teachers’ Perceptions of Using the Mother Tongue for Instruction in the Foundation Phase in Rural Schools · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are offered. Teachers may use intrasentential code-switching to ensure lesson continuity and understanding while continuing to expose their students to English-language usage in classroom discourse. They may use code-switching for instructional functions provided that its use remains purposeful and aligned with lesson objectives. Educational institutions may also provide professional development programs that guide teachers on the appropriate functional use of code-switching in English instruction. They may maintain a balanced, controlled use of code-switching to support learners’ understanding without limiting opportunities for independent English-language practice. Moreover, the proposed CODE Framework may be pilot-tested and implemented in different educational settings to determine further its effectiveness, applicability, and adaptability in actual classroom instruction. Additionally, further studies may determine if similar patterns are common across various grade levels, subject areas, and multilingual contexts. Future research may also investigate how the CODE Framework affects levels of learner understanding, classroom engagement, English language proficiency, and long-term teaching methods. Researchers may also explore how the framework could be modified to meet the needs of different groups of learners, operate in multiple language environments, and be utilized in specific areas of language instruction. REFERENCES Altalhab, S., & Said, F. F. (2024). Ideologies and practices of the use of L1 in L2 vocabulary tasks. ELT Journal, 78(3), 336–344. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccae001 Aparece, M. L., & Bacasmot, J. B. (2023). Analyzing the impacts of code-switching on foreign language classroom anxiety and English language problems through path analysis. Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 41(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajess/2023/v41i1883 Aquino, L. R. (2022). Code-switching in focus: The standpoints of language learners in an ESL classroom. SEAQIL Journal of Language Education, 1(1), 42–52. https://doi.org/10.70046/sjle.1.1.42-52 Ataş, U., & Sağın-Şimşek, Ç. (2021). Discourse and educational functions of students’ and teachers’ code-switching in 100981.

  Code-switching patterns of Junior High School teachers and learners in English class discussions · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Multilingual Education and Policy

• Current Perspectives on Teaching World Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca · TESOL Quarterly · 2006 · 478 citations
• Not a First Language but One Repertoire: Translanguaging as a Decolonizing Project · RELC Journal · 2022 · 352 citations
• Translanguaging Pedagogies for Positive Identities in Two-Way Dual Language Bilingual Education · Journal of Language Identity & Education · 2017 · 187 citations
• Linguistic diversity in a time of crisis: Language challenges of the COVID-19 pandemic · Multilingua · 2020 · 178 citations
• Translanguaging as a political stance: implications for English language education · ELT Journal · 2021 · 176 citations
• Multilinguality, Multimodality, and Multicompetence: Code‐ and Modeswitching by Minority Ethnic Children in Complementary Schools · Modern Language Journal · 2011 · 153 citations
• Pedagogical Translanguaging and Its Application to Language Classes · RELC Journal · 2022 · 136 citations
• Appropriate pedagogy · ELT Journal · 1996 · 133 citations
• The Cultures of English as a Lingua Franca · TESOL Quarterly · 2009 · 122 citations
• Worlding geography: From linguistic privilege to decolonial anywheres · Progress in Human Geography · 2021 · 119 citations

Most recent work

• Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts · Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts · 2026
• Language Problems and Language Planning · Language Problems & Language Planning · 2026
• <i>‘Is our culture not good enough to be included in English lessons?’</i> Decolonizing English textbooks in Thailand’s deep south: a global englishes-informed pedagogical innovation · Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching · 2026
• Language policing and the discourse of English normativity: Asian migrant youth in Australian schools · Language, Culture and Curriculum · 2026
• “We were attacked due to our language”: Kinyabwisha in the family language policies of refugees from the DR Congo in Norway · Language & Communication · 2026
• When multilingual competence becomes liability: native-speakerism and ESA returnee discrimination in Korean education · Language Culture and Curriculum · 2026
• Mapping and tracing shifts in family language policy research on heritage language maintenance (2020–2024): insights from a time of global disruption · Cogent Social Sciences · 2026
• “Can you teach us (Catalan) in Spanish?” · Translation and Translanguaging in Multilingual Contexts · 2026
• Family language policy and translanguaging practices as support for language development in early childhood students with autism spectrum disorder in Indonesia · Discover Education · 2026
• Reframing Childhood: How Language, Kinship, and Multilingual Multigenerational Socialization Shape the Emirati Child · Gulf Education and Social Policy Review (GESPR) · 2026

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