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Open research questions in Animal Behavior and Reproduction

64 unresolved questions extracted from the limitations and future-work sections of 908 Animal Behavior and Reproduction papers in our library. Each links back to the study that raised it.

What the literature leaves open

  • This la(cid:425)er defini(cid:415)on only requires signaller benefit/adaptedness but remains undetermined about receiver benefit/coadaptedness.

    Biological signalling as non-coercive manipulation: revisiting and finetuning the evolutionary definition of a signal · 2026 · DOI

  • Diatom mating activity contributes to their enormous phenotypic and genetic diversity, yet little is known about patterns in diatom reproductive compatibility across genetically diverse strains, nor the effects on offspring phenotypes that may confer adaptive evolution, niche partitioning, or trait improvement.

    Experimental breeding reveals mating patterns and F1 phenotypic diversification in the cosmopolitan diatom Cylindrotheca · 2026 · DOI

  • DTLVardef@c03839_HPS_FORMAT_FIGEXP M_FIG C_FIG HighlightsO_LILifetime averages of social network traits are not associated with fitness C_LIO_LIAnnual deviations from lifetime average sociality improves survival and reproduction C_LIO_LIIntra-individual behavioral plasticity may be an understudied fitness driver C_LIO_LIWithin-individual centering is a useful approach for the study of animal behavior…

    Deviations from an individual's average sociality have fitness consequences · 2026 · DOI

  • Broadening research to include understudied taxa such as invertebrates, herpetofauna and nocturnal species; incorporating common‐garden approaches; and emphasizing clearer definitions for behaviour and urbanization will yield a more comprehensive understanding of how urbanization shapes animal behaviour and other ecologically meaningful phenotypes.

    Global meta‐analysis reveals urban‐associated behavioural differences among wild populations · 2026 · DOI

  • Although the LHRH challenge was inconclusive for androgens, our results provide useful technical details for measuring glucocorticoid metabolites in common waxbill excreta.

    Measurement of excreted steroid metabolites in common waxbills <i>Estrilda astrild</i> · 2026 · DOI

  • In the postmating context, female reproductive fluid (FRF) can modulate sperm performance and bias fertilization outcomes, but its contribution to reproductive isolation remains unclear.

    Female reproductive fluid evolves rapidly to favor conspecific sperm · 2026 · DOI

  • Future studies could investigate how decreased basking opportunity for females before egg laying influences offspring devel- opment which could highlight the need for appropriate basking opportunities for breeding females in captivity. Such adjacent incubating eggs could be a source of social influence af- fecting development which could be investigated in the future.

    The influence of the pre- and post-natal environment on Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko, Squamata, Gekkonidae) development in captivity · 2026 · DOI

  • Temperature-dependent dispersal effects on transgenerational phenotypic plasticity and range shifts in ectotherms have not been integrated into adaptive plasticity models. Future work should incorporate dispersal behavior triggered by parental thermal experience with offspring plastic responses to predict population distribution changes under climate warming.

    A selection-based framework for evaluating transgenerational phenotypic plasticity under environmental change · 2026 · DOI

  • The interaction between epigenome, genome, and environment on evolutionary outcomes has been recognized but lacks predictive theoretical framework. Specific research is needed to model how selection acts on transgenerational plastic responses when DNA methylation variation segregates with genetic variation across generations.

    A selection-based framework for evaluating transgenerational phenotypic plasticity under environmental change · 2026 · DOI

  • Arnold et al. (2019) found sparse evidence for selection on phenotypic plasticity in response to temperature. Future studies should directly measure selection gradients on the reaction norm itself (slope and intercept parameters) across multiple environmental contexts in wild populations experiencing environmental change, rather than inferring selection from fitness proxies alone.

    A selection-based framework for evaluating transgenerational phenotypic plasticity under environmental change · 2026 · DOI

  • The extent of DNA methylation variation in wild animal populations remains poorly characterized for most species beyond model organisms. Population epigenetics research needs to quantify baseline methylation variation across natural populations under field conditions to establish how epigenetic drift and environmental responsiveness interact during selection on transgenerational plasticity.

    A selection-based framework for evaluating transgenerational phenotypic plasticity under environmental change · 2026 · DOI

  • The framework lacks experimental controls for reciprocal match/mismatch experiments in transgenerational phenotypic plasticity studies, as noted by Engqvist & Reinhold (2016). Future work should design controlled laboratory experiments that systematically vary parental environmental conditions independently from offspring rearing conditions to isolate true transgenerational plastic effects from confounding genetic or maternal effects.

    A selection-based framework for evaluating transgenerational phenotypic plasticity under environmental change · 2026 · DOI

  • The model incorporates size-matching sexual selection (eq. 32) but assumes males only benefit from matching female size and do not experience viability costs from growth. Relaxing this assumption to include trade-offs between male growth investment and survival would require reformulating the male fitness function and determining how such costs alter convergence stable strategies and polymorphism conditions.

    Directional and disruptive selection in populations structured by class and continuous ontogeny under incomplete plasticity · 2026 · DOI

  • Figure 3B shows that populations go extinct above a threshold in female extrinsic mortality (μe,f), and that genetic constraints worsen extinction risk by preventing females from evolving compensatory growth rates. However, the paper does not investigate whether sex-specific investment in plasticity (e.g., condition-dependent growth) could buffer against extinction under increased female mortality.

    Directional and disruptive selection in populations structured by class and continuous ontogeny under incomplete plasticity · 2026 · DOI

  • The evolutionary branching leading to male life-history polymorphism (fast-growing short-lived vs. slow-growing long-lived males) is demonstrated only through individual-based simulations with specific parameter sets. The conditions under which polymorphism persists versus collapses across broader parameter space—particularly interactions between α, κ, βf, and μe,f—require systematic bifurcation analysis.

    Directional and disruptive selection in populations structured by class and continuous ontogeny under incomplete plasticity · 2026 · DOI

  • Equation (37) reveals that disruptive selection on male growth depends on the fecundity-weighted average of size mismatch (2κ(x°m(a) – xf)² – 1) being positive, but the paper does not explore how fecundity distributions change under different ecological conditions (e.g., resource limitation, environmental stress) that would alter this condition. Sensitivity analyses varying fecundity functions and female size distributions systematically are missing.

    Directional and disruptive selection in populations structured by class and continuous ontogeny under incomplete plasticity · 2026 · DOI

  • The strength of size-based sexual competition (κ) is shown to be decisive for male evolution and polymorphism emergence, yet the paper does not specify how κ should be empirically measured or estimated from natural populations. Field studies quantifying the relationship between male size matching and reproductive success across species with varying mating systems are needed to parameterize κ realistically.

    Directional and disruptive selection in populations structured by class and continuous ontogeny under incomplete plasticity · 2026 · DOI

  • The model assumes incomplete plasticity with continuous ontogeny, but empirical validation of how size-loss rate (α) specifically affects directional and disruptive selection patterns across different life stages in age-structured populations remains absent. Testing these predictions requires longitudinal data on growth trajectories, survival costs, and reproductive output across multiple cohorts under varying α conditions.

    Directional and disruptive selection in populations structured by class and continuous ontogeny under incomplete plasticity · 2026 · DOI

  • Given the complexity of the HPA axis, and in particular the role of corticosterone, our study has an exploratory rather than a confirmatory nature, but it opens the prospect for a research direction not yet explored.

    Does the Evolution of Predatory Behavior Alter Stress Response? Insights from a Selection Experiment on Bank Voles · 2025 · DOI

  • How traits at multiple levels of biological organization evolve in a correlated fashion in response to directional selection is poorly understood, but two popular models are the very general “behavior evolves first” (BEF) hypothesis and the more specific “morphology-performance-behavior-fitness” (MPBF) paradigm.

    Does Behavior Evolve First? Correlated Responses to Selection for Voluntary Wheel-Running Behavior in House Mice · 2024 · DOI

  • The study examines genital evolution following introduction to novel environments in guppies, but does not quantify whether changes in gonopodium morphology are functionally linked to reproductive success or female preference through behavioral experiments or paternity analysis in the introduced populations.

    Rapid evolution and plasticity of genitalia · 2020 · DOI

  • The paper shows gonopodium sensitivity to developmental environment but does not specify which environmental variables (temperature, food availability, predation pressure, density) drive this plasticity. Controlled experiments manipulating specific environmental factors in introduced guppy populations are needed to identify the developmental mechanisms underlying genital plasticity.

    Rapid evolution and plasticity of genitalia · 2020 · DOI

  • The rapid evolution and developmental plasticity of genitalia demonstrated in this study may confound comparative analyses across natural populations. Future comparative studies must experimentally disentangle the relative contributions of rapid adaptive evolution versus environmental plasticity in generating observed genital trait differences between natural populations.

    Rapid evolution and plasticity of genitalia · 2020 · DOI

  • The paper demonstrates that gonopodium morphology correlates with evolutionary changes in introduced guppy populations, but does not investigate whether changes to the gonopodium are correlated with changes in other fins (dorsal, caudal, anal fins). Given that similar developmental mechanisms control multiple fin structures in swordtail fishes, comparative analysis of genital and non-genital fin morphology across the introduced populations is needed.

    Rapid evolution and plasticity of genitalia · 2020 · DOI

  • ABSTRACT: Thanatosis-also known as death-feigning and, we argue more appropriately, tonic immobility (TI)-is an under-reported but fascinating anti-predator strategy adopted by diverse prey late on in the predation sequence, and frequently following physical contact by the predator.

    A review of thanatosis (death feigning) as an anti-predator behaviour · 2018 · DOI

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64 open questions have been extracted from the limitations and future-work passages of 908 Animal Behavior and Reproduction papers in our library. Each one below links back to the study that raised it, so you can read the original claim in context.

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