Open research questions in Coastal wetland ecosystem dynamics

What the literature leaves open

• Second, the relatively small sample size (n = 67) represents an important limitation and may increase the risk of model overfitting, particularly given the number of predictors included in the regression model.

  Determinants of Perceived Vulnerability to Illness among Coastal Communities in Mangrove Ecosystems · 2026 · DOI

• Since dumping was identified as the primary source of AMD in the studied mangrove ecosystems, it is clear that adequate waste management is lacking in these areas. Therefore, it is recommended to imple- ment proper waste disposal methods to prevent fur- ther dumping of waste in the mangroves. In Man- daithivu, placing waste containers near the jetty can help prevent fishermen from discarding fishing gear into the nearby mangroves. This approach can also be implemented in Araly. Placing waste containers would also prevent tourists from dumping waste into the mangrove areas. Creating awareness is also crucial as the usage of mangrove areas as sites for waste dumping by local communities and fishermen can be due to the lack of knowledge about the vital importance of these ecosys- tems in ecological, economic, and social aspects. Con- ducting programs targeting school children, local com- munities, and fishermen can be beneficial to effectively disseminate knowledge and bring awareness of the ver- satility of mangrove ecosystems. Moreover, encourag- ing students to conduct research on various impacts on mangroves and associated fauna due to AMD accumu- lation can provide valuable insights, which in turn can aid accurate decision-making. Policymaking and legislation can also help prevent illegal dumping in mangrove areas. A lack of strong law enforcement can encourage continuous waste dumping in mangrove areas. Controlling the source of AMD in mangroves is important for forming practical and accurate solutions to prevent the accumulation of AMD in mangroves and reducing the potential of plastic debris to become coastal microplastics. Thus, it is crucial to implement and enforce adequate laws and regulations on the activities of local communi- ties, tourists, and fishermen. In addition, conducting clean-up campaigns in these mangrove ecosystems will contribute greatly to reducing the debris load and controlling the preva- lence of AMD. Future studies should incorporate a greater number of sampling locations, and, where feasible, randomized transect designs to improve spatial representativeness. Expanding spatial coverage would provide a more com- prehensive understanding of spatial variability in AMD accumulation and strengthen monitoring and manage- ment efforts in the Northern Sri Lankan mangroves. Author contribution Rithmy Durmila Peiris contributed to field survey, data collection, laboratory analysis, writing- original draft and Shobiya Gobiraj was involved in conceptu- alization, Supervision, resources and review and editing. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Data availability The datasets generated during and/or ana- lysed during the current study are available from the corre- sponding author on reasonable request.

  Entrapped in debris: a preliminary assessment of the composition of anthropogenic marine debris on selected mangrove habitats of the Jaffna peninsula, Sri Lanka · 2026 · DOI

• We also thank the many partners, landowners, management agencies, and other organizations, without whom site access and data collection would not be possible, including, but not limited to the Cali- fornia Department of Fish and Wildlife, California State Parks, Uni- versity of California Santa Barbara, and Los Cerritos Wetland Author- ity.

  Comparison of Coastal Wetland Vegetation Assessment Methods in Southern California · 2026 · DOI

• This study is limited to the development and valida- tion of biomass equations for juvenile Rhizophora mangle. It does not directly estimate carbon stocks, sequestration rates, or MRV outcomes. Rather, the models provide a biomass-estimation basis that could support future carbon-accounting applications after the incorporation of site-appropriate biomass-to-car- bon conversion factors and uncertainty analysis. The segmented regression defined the breakpoint at which the seedlings were stratified between two size classes, and should not be viewed as a biological transition, but as a statistical division. More so, the models were based on destructive sampling of juve- nile mangrove seedlings within a small size range that could limit extrapolation across size outside the range and/or across sites. As such, the models are best suited to be utilized in the range of calibration of study data.

  Allometric model development for biomass estimation in juvenile red mangroves · 2026 · DOI

• TSS dynamics in Banda Aceh’s coastal waters exhibit clear seasonal variability governed by monsoonal forcing, Fig. 11 Loadings and variance explained by the two principal components derived from PCA based on water quality data from the Banda Aceh coast Wisha et al. Anthropocene Coasts (2026) 9:25 Page 15 of 19 river discharge, and coastal hydrodynamics. The strong correspondence between wet-season rainfall and elevated sediment concentration underscores the dominant influence of fluvial inputs and resuspension processes. These patterns are reinforced by satellite observations, which consistently show intensified sediment plumes near the estuaries during the wet and transitional months, reflecting enhanced runoff, wave action, and wind-driven mixing (Ondara et al. 2021; Setiawan et al. 2023). Similar monsoonal controls have been documented in other river-dominated systems such as the Mekong and Amazon deltas (Manh et al. 2014; Mascarenhas et al. 2016). In April (transitional season), the sharp contrast between high TSS nearshore and lower concentrations offshore suggests localized sediment plumes, likely driven by combined riverine input and wind-induced resuspension. Conversely, July, August, and September exhibited relatively lower TSS levels, with large areas showing concentrations between 10–40 mg/L. These months correspond to the dry season, characterized by lower rainfall, reduced river discharge (10–12 m3/s), and moderate wind speeds, which together limit sediment input and vertical mixing. Compared with larger river–dominated systems such as the Mekong, Amazon, Pearl, Mahakam, Yangtze, and Chesapeake (Manh et al. 2014; Mascarenhas et al. 2016; Cai et al. 2022; Cao et al. 2022; Fattria and Kusumaningrum 2023; Yunus et al. 2021), the Banda Aceh coast demonstrates several distinct characteristics. Despite its moderate tidal range, sharp seasonal contrasts indicate a strong riverine influence relative to its small catchment. The overlapping sediment plumes from the Krueng Aceh, Alue Naga, and Ulee Lheue estuaries create complex mixing zones rarely observed in single-delta systems. Moreover, plume attenuation typically occurs rapidly offshore, though episodic wave and wind forcing can extend dispersal, forming a hybrid regime of localized confinement and intermittent export (Bayhaqi et al. 2022; Surinati et al. 2023). Anthropogenic activities further amplify these sediment dynamics, particularly at small spatial scales. Urban proximity, port operations, and shoreline modification contribute to elevated TSS levels during high-runoff periods, producing plume intensities comparable to much larger river systems such as the Mekong or Amazon (Manh et al. 2014; Mascarenhas et al. 2016). These human-induced inputs not only increase turbidity but also accelerate eutrophication risks, degrade coral and seagrass habitats, and reduce water clarity essential for coastal tourism and nearshore fisheries. In Banda Aceh, the coincidence of high TSS zones with fishing grounds and recreational beaches underscores the tight coupling between land-based activities and coastal ecosystem services. Consequently, managing sediment inputs is not merely an environmental issue but a socio-ecological imperative, central to sustaining fisheries productivity, preserving biodiversity, and maintaining the economic value of coastal tourism in the Anthropocene.

  Spatiotemporal variability of Total Suspended Sediment (TSS) in the Banda Aceh coastal zone, Indonesia, and its environmental implications · 2026 · DOI

• Future endeavors beyond the state of art (correlation between wave attenuation and geometrical shapes of features, proper parametrization of measures and others) Variables with * were used to categorize the publications. approaches (Figure 2d), such as numerical modeling (31 Nos.), physical experiment-based modeling (27 Nos.), both physical and numerical modeling (2 Nos.) and field-based experiments (15 Nos.). Besides, this review paper study consolidates 51 review-type publications investigating earlier research and non-technical features of artificial and natural reefs, together with 21 studies that assess the efficacy of different reefs based on differences in design, materials, and shape. This study screened research publications on coastal protection services provided by artificial or natural reefs across different countries in Europe, Asia, North America, South America, Oceania, and Africa (Figure 2e). Most of the research is conducted by some specific countries, including the United States (34 Nos.), Australia (20 Nos.), China (17 Nos.) and Portugal (15 Nos.). Relatively minor contributions come from South Korea (7), UAE (3), Brazil (5), Colombia (4), UK (7), Ireland (4), Italy (4), Germany (4), Mexico (4), Caribbean Islands (4), and other countries around the world. Following the classification of the reviewed research, the terminology for the measures utilized in coastal protection services has been defined according to Morris et al. (2018), where sea defense strategies were categorized into three primary types: grey sea defense (or conventional hard-engineering methods), green sea defense, and hybrid sea defense. This systematic evaluation categorizes coastal protection strategies that neglect environmental considerations and impact biological communities as hard engineering approaches. Coastal protection utilizing natural substrates (such as oysters, coral, and saltmarshes) and built objects that enhance underwater biodiversity without causing harm, while concurrently offering coastal protection, were categorized as nature-based solutions (Figure 3). 3.2 Coastal protection by natural reefs Natural reefs, such as coral reefs or oyster reefs, serve as natural protective barriers to coastal damage from wave energy, storm, and sea level rise while maintaining the equilibrium of marine ecosystems. Natural reefs safeguard a huge portion of the world’s coastline against shoreline erosion and flooding by dissipating coastal wave energy (Geldard et al., 2023). Oysters, which are recognized as ecosystem engineers, form reefs, stabilize sediment, and protect tidal flat morphology, all of which are essential in attenuating wave energy and reducing coastal erosion (Walles et al., 2015). As an example, Roncolato et al. (2024) investigated the influence of wave exposure on oyster reefs in three macrotidal sites in Australia primarily comprising Sydney rock oyster (Saccostrea glomerata) and found that fringing reefs have a higher dissipating potential, especially in higher wave exposure. Morris et al. (2021) investigated the oyster reef design on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States, considering the ecological limitation in terms of the duration of inundation, and demonstrated a 68% wave height reduction for 50% of the inundation duration. Walles et al. (2015) have identified the protective role of oyster reefs as well, which can effectively enhance sediment disposition dynamics and promote sand accretion processes.

  Coastal protection services provided by nature-based solutions: artificial and natural reefs · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are proposed to enhance mangrove recovery and ensure sustainable management of Apparanbie Creek: • Continuous Environmental Monitoring Regular monitoring of mangrove growth parameters and sediment PAH concentrations should be conducted to assess long-term recovery trends and detect potential recontamination at early stages.

  Evaluation of the recovery of mangroves in Apparambie creek, Niger delta, 9 years after chronic pollution · 2026 · DOI

• their vertebrates, BioScience, https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2009.59.7.11, 2009. on terrestrial evolution and 59, conservation a global of 602–612, Macreadie, P. I., Anton, A., Raven, J. A., Beaumont, N., Connolly, R. M., Friess, D. A., Kelleway, J. J., Kennedy, H., Kuwae, T., Lavery, P. S., Lovelock, C. E., Smale, D. A., Apostolaki, E. T., Atwood, T. B., Baldock, J., Bianchi, T. S., Chmura, G. L., Eyre, B. D., Fourqurean, J. W., Hall-Spencer, J. M., Huxham, M., Hendriks, I. E., Krause-Jensen, D., Laffoley, D., Luisetti, T., Marbà, N., Masqué, P., McGlathery, K. J., Megonigal, J. P., Murdiyarso, D., Russell, B. D., Santos, R., Serrano, O., Silliman, B. R., Watanabe, K., and Duarte, C. M.: The future of Blue Carbon science, Nat. Commun., 10, 3998, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467- 019-11693-w, 2019. Mahdianpari, M., Jafarzadeh, H., Granger, J. E., Mohammadimanesh, F., Brisco, B., Salehi, B., Homayouni, S., and Weng, Q.: A large-scale change monitoring of wetlands using time series Landsat imagery on Google Earth Engine: a case study in Newfoundland, GISci. Remote Sens., 57, 1102–1124, https://doi.org/10.1080/15481603.2020.1846948, 2020. Mandal, D., Kumar, V., Ratha, D., Dey, S., Bhattacharya, A., Lopez- Sanchez, J. M., McNairn, H., and Rao, Y. S.: Dual polarimetric radar vegetation index for crop growth monitoring using sentinel-1 SAR data, Remote Sens. Environ., 247, 111954, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111954, 2020. Mao, W., Wang, X., Liu, G., Pirasteh, S., Zhang, R., Lin, H., Xie, Y., Xiang, W., Ma, Z., series InSAR ionospheric delay estimation, correction, and ground deformation monitoring with reformulating range splitspectrum interferometry, IEEE T. Geosci. Remote, 61, 1–18, https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2023.3298919, 2023. and Ma, P.: Time Min, Y., Ke, Y., Zhuo, Z., Qi, W., Li, J., Li, P., and Zhao, N.: Monitoring Spartina Alterniflora removal dynamics across coastal China using time series Sentinel-1 imagery, Remote Sens. Environ., 326, 114813, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2025.114813, 2025. Mleczko, M. and Mróz, M.: Wetland mapping using sar data from the sentinel-1a and tandem-x missions: a comparative study in the biebrza floodplain (Poland), Remote Sens.-Basel, 10, 78, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10010078, 2018. Morales-Barquero, L., Lyons, M. B., Phinn, S. R., and Roelfsema, C. M.: Trends in remote sensing accuracy assessment approaches in the context of natural resources, Remote Sens.-Basel, 11, 2305, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs11192305, 2019. and Moreno-Mateos, D., Power, M. E., Comín, F. A., rein e1001247, Yockteng, R.: Structural stored wetland ecosystems, PLoS Biol., 10, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001247, 2012. functional loss and https://doi.org/10.5194/essd-18-2907-2026 Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 18, 2907–2927, 2026 2926 Y. Li et al.: CCAV-10m Murray, N. J., Worthington, T. A., Bunting, P., Duce, S., Hagger, V., Lovelock, C. E., Lucas, R., Saunders, M. I., Sheaves, M., Spalding, M., Villoslada, M., and Waltham, N. J.: High-resolution mapping of losses and gains of Earth’s tidal wetlands, Science, 376, 744–749, 2022. Nikaein, T., Iannini, L., Molijn, R. A., and Lopez-Dekker, P.: On the value of Sentinel-1 InSAR coherence time-series for vegetation classification, Remote Sens.-Basel, 13, 3300, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13163300, 2021. O’Connell, J. L., Mishra, D. R., Cotten, D. L., Wang, L., and Alber, M.: The Tidal Marsh Inundation Index (TMII): an inundation filter to flag flooded pixels and improve MODIS tidal marsh vegetation time-series analysis, Remote Sens. Environ., 201, 34– 46, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.08.008, 2017.

  CCAV-10m: an annual spatiotemporal dataset for eastern coastal China’s wetland vegetation by integrating Sentinel-1/2 observations via deep learning · 2026 · DOI

• The study showed limited explanatory power of soil and diversity variables (29% and 67% respectively), indicating that traditional 'diversity-function' hypotheses may not be fully applicable to herbaceous marsh ecosystems and require mechanistic understanding with system-specific contexts.

  Grazing intensity drives above–belowground productivity trade-offs and reveals belowground dominance in temperate herbaceous marsh wetlands · 2026 · DOI

• migration. The Innovation Geoscience 1, 100002. 74. Yang, P., Wu, L., Cheng, M., Fan, J., Li, S., Wang, H., and Qian, L. (2023). Review on Drip Irrigation: Impact on Crop Yield, Quality, and Water Productivity in China. Water 15, 1733. 75. Dong, S., Wang, G., Kang, Y., Ma, Q., and Wan, S. (2022). Soil water and salinity dynamics under the improved drip-irrigation scheduling for ecological restoration in the saline area of Yellow River basin. Agric. Water Manag. 264, 107255. 76. Wang, Y., Gao, M., Chen, H., Fu, X., Wang, L., and Wang, R. (2023). Soil moisture and salinity dynamics of drip irrigation in saline-alkali soil of Yellow River basin. Front. Environ. Sci. 11, 1130455. 77. Afzal, M., Hindawi, S.E.S., Alghamdi, S.S., Migdadi, H.H., Khan, M.A., Hasnain, M.U., Arslan, M., Habib ur Rahman, M., and Sohaib, M. (2023). Potential breeding strategies for improving salt tolerance in crop plants. J. Plant Growth Regul. 42, 3365–3387. 78. Guo, J., Shan, C., Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Tian, H., Han, G., Zhang, Y., and Wang, B. (2022). Mechanisms of salt tolerance and molecular breeding of salt-tolerant ornamental plants. Front. Plant Sci. 13, 854116. art. 79. Singh, R.K., Kota, S., and Flowers, T.J. (2021). Salt tolerance in rice: seedling and reproductive stage QTL mapping come of age. Theor. Appl. Genet. 134, 3495–3533. 80. Simko, I., Jia, M., Venkatesh, J., Kang, B.-C., Weng, Y., Barcaccia, G., Lanteri, S., Bhattarai, G., and Foolad, M.R. (2021). Genomics and marker-assisted improvement of vegetable crops. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 40, 303–365. 81. Tavakoli, K., Pour-Aboughadareh, A., Kianersi, F., Poczai, P., Etminan, A., and Shooshtari, L. (2021). Applications of CRISPR- Cas9 as an advanced genome editing system ll OPEN ACCESS in life sciences. BioTechnology (Rajkot, India) 10, 14. 82. Miladinovic, D., Antunes, D., Yildirim, K., (cid:3) Spika, A., Bakhsh, A., Cveji(cid:1)c, S., Kondi(cid:1)c- Marjanovic Jeromela, A., Opsahl-Sorteberg, H.G., Zambounis, A., and Hilioti, Z. (2021).

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• mediates the impacts of soil aggregate size on greenhouse gas emissions. Geoderma 401, 115342. 58. Suriyagoda, L., De Costa, W.A.J.M., and Lambers, H. (2014). Growth and phosphorus nutrition of rice when inorganic fertiliser application is partly replaced by straw under varying moisture availability in sandy and clay soils. Plant Soil 384, 53–68. 59. Xue, B., Huang, L., Li, X., Lu, J., Gao, R., and Kamran, M. (2022). Straw residue incorporation and potassium fertilization enhances soil aggregate stability by altering soil content of iron oxide and organic carbon in a rice–rape cropping system. Land Degrad. Dev. 33, 2567–2584. 60. Ma, J., Xu, H., Yagi, K., and Cai, Z. (2008). Methane emission from paddy soils as affected by wheat straw returning mode. Plant Soil 313, 167–174. 61. Su, W., Lu, J., Wang, W., Li, X., Ren, T., and Cong, R. (2014). Influence of rice straw mulching on seed yield and nitrogen use efficiency of winter oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.) in intensive rice–oilseed rape cropping system. Field Crops Res. 159, 53–61. 62. Etesami, H., and Maheshwari, D.K. (2018). Use of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPRs) with multiple plant growth promoting traits in stress agriculture: Action mechanisms and future prospects. Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf. 156, 225–246. 63. Orhan, F. (2021).

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• ll OPEN ACCESS achieving long-term success of breeding programs aimed at the improvement of salt tolerance in crop plant varieties and mitigation of soil salinization effects in agriculture. CONCLUDING REMARKS In this perspective, two approaches to mitigate the growing phenomena of soil salinization in agriculture are proposed: NBSs and breeding for salt tolerance in crop plants. NBSs have the advantage of revitalizing ecosystem services and contributing to biodiversity conservation; however, they are not always feasible since climate conditions could be a limited factor for the effectiveness of some species. Bioengineering in selecting and creating salt-tolerant crops could be a valid alternative, especially for large-scale agricultural systems where preserving one crop is essential to guarantee a specific food need or some crops hold significant cultural and traditional importance for people living in the area. The indication is to implement both approaches to fully achieve SDG2 while guaranteeing environmental sustainability. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS P.T., G.B., and R.M. would like to acknowledge Agritech National Research Center supported by the European Union Next-GenerationEU (PIANO NAZIONALE DI RIPRESA E RESILIENZA(PNRR) – MISSIONE 4 COMPONENTE 2, INVESTIMENTO 1.4 – D.D. 1032 17/06/2022, CN00000022). The manuscript reflects only the authors’ views and opinions; neither the European Union nor the European Commission can be considered responsible for them. J.L. would like to acknowledge the Start-up funding from Inner Mongolia University (21800- 5223728). E.P. would also like to acknowledge financial support from the Ministry of Education of Singapore (AcRFs Tier1 RG142/22 and Tier2 MOE-T2EP402A20-0001). DECLARATION OF INTERESTS The authors declare no competing interests. REFERENCES 1. Wang, W., Pijl, A., and Tarolli, P. (2022). Future climate-zone shifts are threatening steep-slope agriculture. Nat. Food 3, 193–196. 2. UN (2017). Factsheet: People and Oceans General. In The Ocean Conference, New York, 5-9 June 2017. 3. Mukhopadhyay, R., Sarkar, B., Jat, H.S., Sharma, P.C., and Bolan, N.S. (2021). Soil salinity under climate change: Challenges for sustainable agriculture and food security. J. Environ. Manag. 280, 111736. 4. Giosan, L., Syvitski, J., Constantinescu, S., and Day, J. (2014). Climate change: Protect the world’s deltas. Nature 516, 31–33. 5. Rahman, M.M., Penny, G., Mondal, M.S., Zaman, M.H., Kryston, A., Salehin, M., Nahar, Q., Islam, M.S., Bolster, D., Tank, J.L., and Mu¨ ller, M. (2019). Salinization in large river deltas: Drivers, impacts and sociohydrological feedbacks. Water Security 6, 100024. 6. Eslami, S., Hoekstra, P., Minderhoud, P.S.J., Trung, N.N., Hoch, J.M., Sutanudjaja, E.H., Dung, D.D., Tho, T.Q., Voepel, H.E., Woillez, M.N., and Van Der Vegt, M. (2021). Projections of salt intrusion in a mega-delta under climatic and anthropogenic stressors. Commun. Earth Environ. 2, 142. 7.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• wastage and, at the same time, preventing saltwater from being absorbed by the roots, therefore, it is an optimal practice for arid lands. Limitations in adopting such strategies are related to costs, which can limit large-scale implementation, especially for low-income countries. Concerning rainwater harvesting solutions, the size may not be sufficient to meet the water needs of large-scale commercial farming operations, or on the other hand, the climate is so dry that the rain collected is not enough to support agriculture. In such cases, supplementary water sources may still be required; therefore, more structured water reservoirs and groundwater use must be implemented. However, this latter solution has a price in terms of environmental impact; if groundwater exploitation reaches unsustainable levels, a collapse of soil ecosystems and entire communities without freshwater may be possible. BREEDING FOR SALT TOLERANCE IN CROP PLANTS Salinity is one of the most important environmental stresses affecting plant growth and development, reducing crop yield. Plants are known to promote adaptation mechanisms to tolerate saline conditions by activating or modulating specific genes that can regulate osmotic and oxidative stresses induced by salinity.77 Breeding crops and ornamental plants for salinity tolerance is challenging but possible, and significant improvements have been achieved in the last years by selecting salt-tolerant genotypes in model species.78,79 Nowadays, in the era of structural and functional genomics, the genetic factors, as well as the physiological and biochemical mechanisms underlying salinity tolerance, have been widely investigated and unveiled for the major crop plants, with potential applications in molecular breeding programs.77–79 Several quantitative trait loci (QTLs) related to salinity stress have been mapped by genome-wide analysis studies as well as candidate genes encoding for transcription factors and specific proteins induced by salinity stress have been identified in crop plants (reviewed by Afzal et al.77). This information makes now possible to combine conventional and molecular breeding approaches. In the past few decades, marker-assisted selection has deeply transformed plant breeding by giving breeders the foreknowledge of critical traits during the seedling stage, allowing them to make phenotypic predictions early on and with greater precision and accuracy.80 However, one of the major challenges in both conventional and molecular breeding is represented by the linkage drag, which depends on the unwanted transfer of undesirable linked genes from wild species to cultivated varieties.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• Organic fertilizers ll OPEN ACCESS Using organic fertilizers offers an effective strategy for preserving soil organic carbon (SOC) levels and preventing soil salinization. Derived from natural sources like animal manure, compost, or cover crops, organic fertilizers deliver numerous benefits to soil health and fertility.65 By introducing organic matter into the soil, these fertilizers contribute to SOC enrichment. This organic matter serves as a carbon source that stimulates the activity of soil microorganisms, leading to the decomposition of organic materials. Consequently, this process releases essential nutrients into the soil, supporting plant growth while increasing SOC levels. By maintaining or augmenting SOC, organic fertilizers enhance soil structure and bolster water-holding capacity,66 effectively reducing the risk of soil salinization. Furthermore, organic fertilizers are vital in enhancing nutrient cycling and availability in the soil. The organic matter in these fertilizers acts as a reservoir of nutrients, slowly releasing them over time, thus reducing the likelihood of nutrient leaching and runoff.67 This efficient nutrient management helps maintain a balanced soil ecosystem and prevent the accumulation of salts, a major cause of soil salinization. Having said that ensuring a consistent and reliable supply of organic materials can be difficult due to factors such as availability, transportation, and cost. Second, determining the optimal application rates and timing of organic fertilizers demands a thorough understanding of soil characteristics and crop requirements.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• potentially affect farmers’ income. This land-use conflict can limit the widespread adoption of buffer zones. Another limitation is the lack of uniform regulations and guidelines. Buffer zone requirements vary from region to region, making it confusing and difficult for farmers to comply. The lack of standardized practices can lead to inconsistent implementation and enforcement. Maintaining buffer zones can also be resource intensive. Farmers must invest time, labor, and resources in managing these areas. Overcoming these challenges, through sub- sidies and clear ad-hoc guidelines, is essential for maximizing the well-known and widely acknowledged benefits of buffer zones in agriculture.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• ll OPEN ACCESS Figure 2. Conceptual framework illustrating sustainable solutions discussed in this paper, to mitigate soil salinization in agriculture without a challenge. These include land tenure issues, insufficient local knowledge, and upfront costs that may deter investments.33 Moreover, the effectiveness of these solutions can be geographically contingent. For example, mangrove restoration may be highly effective in tropical regions like the Mekong Delta, but less in the colder climates where these plants may struggle to thrive. Similarly, salt marshes are more suit- able for areas with specific tidal ranges and sediment types.28 Therefore, understanding regional specificities is essential for successfully adopting NBS for combating soil salinization.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• Figure 1. Saltwater intrusion effects (yellow and bare soil areas on the left side of the road) on soybeans in the Po River Delta (Italy) as seen from drone survey, 8 August 2022 (photo by S. Cucchiaro). around the globe highlight the pressing issue of salinity intrusion disasters and their severe consequences for agriculture in delta regions. The soil salinization phenomenon is widely spread also in inland arid regions.17 Inland deserts and arid lands cover vast expanses of the Earth’s surface, comprising diverse ecosystems such as deserts, steppes, and drylands. These regions are often fragile and highly sensitive to environmental disturbances, including changes in water availability and quality.18 These areas, characterized by low rainfall and high evaporation rates, are particularly susceptible to salinization due to limited freshwater resources and high soil salt concentrations.19 The causes of salinization in inland deserts and arid lands are multifaceted. Natural processes, such as weathering rocks and minerals, release salts into the soil and water.20 In Western Australia, for instance, rock weathering and deposition over thousands of years has resulted in salinity accumulation of approximately 100 and 15,000 tonnes/ha.21,22 However, human activities play a significant role in accelerating salinization processes. Improper irrigation practices, excessive groundwater extraction, and inadequate drainage systems can accumulate salts in the soil profile, gradually rendering the land unsuitable for cultivation.23–25 Soil salinization jeopardizes the productivity of agricultural lands, degrading soil fertility and threatening the survival of plant and animal species adapted to arid conditions.26 Addressing the challenges posed by soil salinization requires a multi-faceted approach. To mitigate such phenomenon, it is necessary to adopt sustainable water management practices, promoting efficient irrigation techniques (e.g., drop and sub-irrigation) combined with rainwater harvesting facilities. However, only with the adoption of NBS it is possible to solve the issue while preserving ecosystem services. The purpose of this perspective is to explore the capability of NBS to mitigate soil salinization in agriculture through a combination of sustainable solutions that can be adopted from coastal areas to inland arid lands. We also debated the possible benefit of bioengineering advances in selecting and creating salttolerant crops. Indeed, under the urgent need to combat hunger, given the actual acceleration of climate change, NBS could not be enough to act in large areas and support millions of people. Therefore, we propose combining salt-tolerant crop varieties with NBS to optimize the benefits in the world’s most vulnerable regions. For each solution described, we addressed the challenges and limitations of their implementations. A conceptual framework of the mitigation solutions described in the work is summarized in Figure 2.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering Paolo Tarolli,1,* Jian Luo,2 Edward Park,3 Gianni Barcaccia,4 and Roberta Masin4 SUMMARY Soil salinization is among the most critical threats to agriculture and food security. Excess of salts adversely affects soil structure and fertility, plant growth, crop yield, and microorganisms. It is caused by natural processes, such as dry climates and low precipitations, high evaporation rate, poor waterlogging, and human factors, such as inappropriate irrigation practices, poor drainage systems, and excessive use of fertilizers. The growing extremization of climate with prolonged drought conditions is worsening the phenomenon. Nature-based solutions (NBS), combined with precision or conservation agriculture, represent a sustainable response, and offer benefits through revitalizing ecosystem services. This perspective explores NBS that can be adopted, along with their challenges and implementation limitations. We also argue that NBS could not be enough to combat hunger in the world’s most vulnerable regions and fully achieve the Sustainable Development Goal – Zero Hunger (SDG2). We therefore discuss their possible combination with salt-tolerant crops based on bioengineering. INTRODUCTION According to the UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, it is necessary to follow 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to guarantee peace and prosperity for people and the planet. The purpose of SDG2 is to end hunger and ensure sufficient food for all people, particularly the poor. Sustainable food production systems need to be guaranteed through sustainable and resilient agricultural practices that increase productivity, maintain ecosystems, strengthen capacity for adaptation to climate change, and progressively improve land and soil quality. Unfortunately, the SGD2 target is at risk since climate change threatens global agriculture.1 At present, more than 8 billion people live on Earth. About 40% of the global population is located within 100 km from the coast, with over 600 million people at elevations less than 10 m asl.2 About 30% live in drylands where, according to UN-Habitat, the population growth rate was faster than in any other ecological zone. Important socioeconomic activities are located along coastal areas, and unfortunately, also a significant number of poor people. Global warming is threatening these regions by extremizing the hydrological cycle with an acceleration of the evapotranspiration and rainfall rate, megadroughts, flash droughts, and sea level rise. One of the effects, worsened by not optimal water resources management and excessive use of fertilizers, is the salinization of soils.

  Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · 2024 · DOI

• The study does not quantify how vegetation-microclimate feedbacks specific to woody plant encroachment in the coastal setting alter soil organic carbon accumulation rates or modify the partitioning of water between differently sized shrubs and potential groundwater recharge.

  Shrub Age and Water Dynamics Influence Primary Production, Carbon, and Nitrogen Stocks in a Coastal Environment · 2024 · DOI

• The research focuses on a single coastal barrier island chronosequence; validation of the observed relationships between shrub age, water dynamics, and carbon-nitrogen stocks is needed across geographically distinct coastal environments with different precipitation regimes, salinity gradients, and soil parent materials.

  Shrub Age and Water Dynamics Influence Primary Production, Carbon, and Nitrogen Stocks in a Coastal Environment · 2024 · DOI

• The paper does not employ remote sensing techniques (NDVI, reflectance assessment, or breakpoint analysis) to track seasonal and interannual changes in leaf area index and biomass accumulation across the shrub age gradient, limiting the ability to scale local findings to larger barrier island landscapes.

  Shrub Age and Water Dynamics Influence Primary Production, Carbon, and Nitrogen Stocks in a Coastal Environment · 2024 · DOI

• While the research addresses primary production changes with shrub expansion in coastal wetlands, it lacks experimental manipulation of groundwater availability to isolate the independent effects of water table elevation on soil nitrogen cycling, nitrogen source shifts, and litterfall composition in expanding shrub thickets.

  Shrub Age and Water Dynamics Influence Primary Production, Carbon, and Nitrogen Stocks in a Coastal Environment · 2024 · DOI

• The study examines shrub age effects on carbon and nitrogen stocks along a coastal chronosequence, but does not quantify how interannual variation in precipitation intensity affects the relationship between shrub encroachment and soil carbon sequestration rates across different water table depths in coastal environments.

  Shrub Age and Water Dynamics Influence Primary Production, Carbon, and Nitrogen Stocks in a Coastal Environment · 2024 · DOI

• The Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape (SBPS) in the south of Mindanao Islands in the Philippines is home to a large number of mangrove species, which have not been fully explored.

  Species richness, extent and potential threats to mangroves of Sarangani Bay Protected Seascape, Philippines · 2023 · DOI

• Remote sensing of sun‐induced chlorophyll fluorescence (SIF) has emerged as a promising approach to approximating GPP across ecosystems, but its capability for tracking GPP in evergreen mangroves has not been assessed.

  Potential of Sun‐Induced Chlorophyll Fluorescence for Indicating Mangrove Canopy Photosynthesis · 2021 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Coastal wetland ecosystem dynamics

• Soil salinization in agriculture: Mitigation and adaptation strategies combining nature-based solutions and bioengineering · iScience · 2024 · 382 citations
• Blue carbon and the role of mangroves in carbon sequestration: Its mechanisms, estimation, human impacts and conservation strategies for economic incentives · Journal of Sea Research · 2024 · 210 citations
• Windows of opportunity for salt marsh vegetation establishment on bare tidal flats: The importance of temporal and spatial variability in hydrodynamic forcing · Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences · 2015 · 145 citations
• Submarine Groundwater Discharge‐Derived Carbon Fluxes in Mangroves: An Important Component of Blue Carbon Budgets? · Journal of Geophysical Research Oceans · 2018 · 133 citations
• Microbial diversity and keystone species drive soil nutrient cycling and multifunctionality following mangrove restoration · Environmental Research · 2024 · 118 citations
• Linear and nonlinear effects of temperature and precipitation on ecosystem properties in tidal saline wetlands · Ecosphere · 2017 · 110 citations
• Effects of episodic flooding on the net ecosystem CO₂ exchange of a supratidal wetland in the Yellow River Delta · Journal of Geophysical Research Biogeosciences · 2015 · 105 citations
• Projecting global mangrove species and community distributions under climate change · Ecosphere · 2013 · 101 citations
• Implementation of blue carbon offset crediting for seagrass meadows, macroalgal beds, and macroalgae farming in Japan · Marine Policy · 2022 · 99 citations
• Remote sensing of seasonal changes and disturbances in mangrove forest: a case study from South Florida · Ecosphere · 2016 · 92 citations

Most recent work

• CCAV-10m: an annual spatiotemporal dataset for eastern coastal China’s wetland vegetation by integrating Sentinel-1/2 observations via deep learning · Earth System Science Data · 2026
• Lowland tropical forests remain a methane sink under warming and long-term hurricane disturbance recovery · Agricultural and Forest Meteorology · 2026
• Deposition Mechanisms of Suspended Sediment in an Estuarine Artificial Lake: A Case Study of the Jiaojiang Estuary · Fluids · 2026
• Mangrove-associated Halotolerant Bacteria: Ecological Roles, Molecular Interactions and Biotechnological Potentials · Journal of Advances in Biology & Biotechnology · 2026
• Grazing intensity drives above–belowground productivity trade-offs and reveals belowground dominance in temperate herbaceous marsh wetlands · Frontiers in Plant Science · 2026
• Community-Based Management for Sustainable Mangrove Conservation · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026
• Fine-scale mangrove species monitoring and ecological threshold assessment for coastal management in Quanzhou Bay, China · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · 2026
• Root residue mass loss of Leymus chinensis stimulates macro and mesofauna activity and enhances carbon accumulation in Songnen grasslands · Biology and Fertility of Soils · 2026
• Correction to Examining the effects of economic zone construction on mangrove forest using before-after-control-impact (BACI) · Environmental Monitoring and Assessment · 2026
• Environmental Carrying Capacity and Community-Based Governance of Mangrove Ecotourism in Tomini Bay · Jurnal Inotera · 2026

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