Open research questions in Education and Learning Interventions

What the literature leaves open

• There is limited empirical evidence describing how undergraduates from different-tier Chinese higher-education institutions differ in short-video usage and related perceived academic impacts. Existing short-video studies rarely compare students' perceived educational value of short-video resources and their actual frequency of learning-oriented platforms.

  The double-edged sword of short-form video platform use: Chinese undergraduates’ perceived academic consequences and self-regulatory behaviours on Douyin · 2026 · DOI

• Further research could investigate the long-term effects of AIEd adoption on teachers' beliefs and attitudes. Studies could explore the impact of AIEd on student learning outcomes. Research could examine the role of institutional support in facilitating AIEd adoption among teachers.

  Acceptance of Educational Artificial Intelligence by Teachers and Its Relationship with Some Variables and Pedagogical Beliefs · 2024 · DOI

• It highlights the need to examine the relationship between AIEd acceptance and pedagogical beliefs.

  Acceptance of Educational Artificial Intelligence by Teachers and Its Relationship with Some Variables and Pedagogical Beliefs · 2024 · DOI

• Many students need help understanding the nature of science. Implementing science education that uses the NoS and inquiry is not easy, with many obstacles found. There is a need for an instrument to measure science inquiry literacy.

  Development and Validation of Scientific Inquiry Literacy Instrument (SILI) Using Rasch Measurement Model · 2024 · DOI

• The need to develop a convergent teaching method that effectively integrates contemporary poetry and visual arts in a metaverse environment. Ensuring the effectiveness of the metaverse-based educational program in enhancing educational outcomes.

  Innovative Integration of Poetry and Visual Arts in Metaverse for Sustainable Education · 2024 · DOI

• There is a lack of research on the effects of leadership development programs on student achievement. Prior studies have found few significant effects of leadership development programs on student learning. The study aims to address this gap by evaluating the High Impact Leadership for School Renewal project.

  Effects of the “High Impact Leadership for School Renewal” Project on Principal Leadership, School Leadership, and Student Achievement · 2024 · DOI

• The limited integration of digital media in German classrooms due to teachers' low motivation and negative attitudes. The lack of understanding of how vicarious experiences influence pre-service teachers' digital media self-efficacy and attitudes toward digital media.

  Exploring the Influence of Vicarious Experiences in Teaching with Digital Technology on Pre-Service Science Teachers’ Digitalization-Related Affective-Motivational Dispositions · 2024 · DOI

• The study highlights the need to develop initiative and cooperation-and-collaboration-related and network-building skills among university students.

  Sustainable Growth of Transversal Competencies: Exploring the Competence Relationships among University Students · 2024 · DOI

• Conventional virtual 3D modeling teaching may not be in line with the cognitive way of thinking of primary school students, causing high cognitive load. Immersive virtual reality environments can provide students with more immersive and intuitive interactions, but their effects on creative thinking and problem-solving skills are not well understood.

  The Effects of an Immersive Virtual-Reality-Based 3D Modeling Approach on the Creativity and Problem-Solving Tendency of Elementary School Students · 2024 · DOI

• E-learning is increasingly central to higher education, yet its adoption in embodied, practice-led disciplines such as actor training remains under-researched.

  Drivers of E-Learning Adoption in Undergraduate Acting Education · 2026

• The study faced challenges in terms of the small sample size and the limited generalizability of the findings. The study also faced challenges in terms of the complexity of the relationships between the variables.

  Effects of Basic Learning Ability Enhancement Program on Major Satisfaction of College Students: Analysis of the Sequential Mediating Effects of Self-efficacy and Learning Immersion · 2026 · DOI

• There is a lack of research on the effects of basic learning ability enhancement programs on major satisfaction. Prior research has focused on the effects of such programs on academic achievement, but not on major satisfaction.

  Effects of Basic Learning Ability Enhancement Program on Major Satisfaction of College Students: Analysis of the Sequential Mediating Effects of Self-efficacy and Learning Immersion · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should explore the development of lightweight, child-friendly VR hardware and examine how physical design interacts with cognitive and emotional engagement. Beyond hardware and instructional concerns, future studies should explore adaptive VR systems that respond to individual learners’ skill levels and needs.

  Psychosocial dimensions of immersive learning: a study of VR-enabled science education for children through the lens of self-determination theory · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the research findings, educational policymakers and institutional leaders should prioritise the following strategic actions: Develop trust-centered AI integration policies that address data privacy, algorithmic transparency, and ethical AI governance, as trust was found to be a critical mediating construct in the AIEd adoption pathway.

  Determinants fo AIEd Success: An Extended UTAUT2 Perspective with CB-SEM · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should employ longitudinal designs to track how perceptions evolve with actual AI exposure and policy changes. Qualitative methods, such as interviews or focus groups, would deepen understanding of the nuanced reasoning behind traditional preferences and workload responses.

  Norwegian secondary teachers’ perceptions of artificial intelligence in summative assessments · 2026 · DOI

• Few studies have examined pre-service teachers' perceptions of GenAI. There is a need to explore the factors that influence pre-service teachers' adoption of GenAI.

  An investigation of pre-service teachers’ perceptions of generative artificial intelligence using an instrument based on expectancy-value theory and an evaluation of their learning anxiety · 2026 · DOI

• The study highlights the need to address the methodological limitations of the study, including the gender imbalance.

  From Intention to Reflection: Understanding Self-Directed Learning in the Use of Generative AI in Vietnam · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the understanding of how students' intentions to use GenAI are associated with reflective engagement and self-directed learning. The study highlights the need to extend the Theory of Planned Behavior to account for the role of reflection and self-directed learning in GenAI-supported learning environments.

  From Intention to Reflection: Understanding Self-Directed Learning in the Use of Generative AI in Vietnam · 2026 · DOI

• One limitation is the narrow demographic scope of the study sample, which consisted exclusively of senior pre-service teachers enrolled in a course specifically designed to address the educational uses of imVR. We collected data at a single point in time; thus, we did not account for the long-term evolution of behavioral intentions.

  Applying and Testing an Extensively Modified UTAUT-2 Model to Examine Pre-Service Teachers’ Intention to Use Immersive Virtual Reality in Their Teaching · 2026 · DOI

• Education stakeholders should focus on building pre-service teachers’ confidence and competence in using imVR through structured, hands-on training and consistent access to well-supported technological environments.

  Applying and Testing an Extensively Modified UTAUT-2 Model to Examine Pre-Service Teachers’ Intention to Use Immersive Virtual Reality in Their Teaching · 2026 · DOI

• The sample was restricted to five diverse yet Oslo-based secondary schools, limiting generalizability to rural or non-academic tracks in Norway or international contexts. Reliance on self-reported cross-sectional data precludes causal inference and may introduce social desirability bias. The lower internal consistency of the Digital Efficacy scale (α =.48) suggests room for refinement in future instrumentation.

  Norwegian secondary teachers’ perceptions of artificial intelligence in summative assessments · 2026 · DOI

• Further empirical evaluation is required to confirm the effectiveness of potential interventions, - Future studies could investigate the effects of short-form video platforms on students' academic performance using objective measures, - Research could explore the development of targeted digital literacy training to help students use short-video platforms…

  The double-edged sword of short-form video platform use: Chinese undergraduates’ perceived academic consequences and self-regulatory behaviours on Douyin · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of face-to-face interaction in asynchronous learning - The need for interactive and engaging asynchronous lecture materials - The importance of considering students' different cultural backgrounds, learning preferences, and learning…

  Exploring Students’ Learning Experience and Engagement in Asynchronous Learning Using the Community of Inquiry Framework through Educational Design Research · 2024 · DOI

• Further research could explore the possibility of expanding the scope of the research to other institutions, - The study could be replicated in other contexts to validate the findings, - Future research could investigate the impact of the CoI framework on student learning…

  Exploring Students’ Learning Experience and Engagement in Asynchronous Learning Using the Community of Inquiry Framework through Educational Design Research · 2024 · DOI

• Technical challenges, - The study involved a joint exhibition project with a limited number of students from Sangmyung University and international…

  Innovative Integration of Poetry and Visual Arts in Metaverse for Sustainable Education · 2024 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Education and Learning Interventions

• A Meta-Analysis of Three Types of Interaction Treatments in Distance Education · Review of Educational Research · 2009 · 754 citations
• What Forty Years of Research Says About the Impact of Technology on Learning · Review of Educational Research · 2011 · 702 citations
• Educational Outcomes of Tutoring: A Meta-analysis of Findings · American Educational Research Journal · 1982 · 701 citations
• The Case for Social Agency in Computer-Based Teaching: Do Students Learn More Deeply When They Interact With Animated Pedagogical Agents? · Cognition and Instruction · 2001 · 610 citations
• Teacher efficacy, self-concept, and attitudes toward the implementation of instructional innovation · Teaching and Teacher Education · 1988 · 531 citations
• Effectiveness of computer-based instruction: An updated analysis · Computers in Human Behavior · 1991 · 525 citations
• Effects of alternative training methods on self-efficacy and performance in computer software training. · Journal of Applied Psychology · 1989 · 511 citations
• THE COMPARATIVE EFFECTIVENESS OF WEB‐BASED AND CLASSROOM INSTRUCTION: A META‐ANALYSIS · Personnel Psychology · 2006 · 475 citations
• Quality of Learning With an Active Versus Passive Motivational Set · American Educational Research Journal · 1984 · 460 citations
• A Meta-analysis of the Effects of Computer Technology on School Students’ Mathematics Learning · Educational Psychology Review · 2010 · 346 citations

Most recent work

• The effects of critical thinking intervention on reliance behaviors, problem-solving quality, and creativity during human-Generative AI collaborative learning · Computers & Education · 2026
• Trusting the Machine: How AI Assessment Feedback and AI Literacy Shape Students' Idea Implementation Skills · European Journal of Education · 2026
• Examining the relationship between pre-service teachers’ technological pedagogical content knowledge and generative artificial intelligence acceptance · Discover Education · 2026
• Unraveling the factors influencing deep learning in online education: the roles of metacognitive strategies, online learning self-efficacy, creativity-fostering teacher behaviors and self-directed learning behaviors · Interactive Learning Environments · 2026
• A longitudinal study of digital multimodal learning activities and achievement motivation: A superposition perspective from Chinese EFL learners · Learning and Motivation · 2026
• The Effects of Digital Technologies on Physical Education Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis · Physical Education Theory and Methodology · 2026
• Acceleration is Still the Lodestone for Gifted Program Development · Gifted Child Today · 2026
• A reliability generalization meta-analysis of unified theory of acceptance and use of technology model in the educational research · Educational Research Review · 2026
• The Effects of Artificial Intelligence and STEAM Applications on Visual Arts Education · International Journal of Technology in Education · 2026
• Effects of virtual peer based on generative artificial Intelligence on pre-service teachers’ informational instructional design ability · Asia Pacific Journal of Education · 2026

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