Open research questions in Neuroethics, Human Enhancement, Biomedical Innovations

What the literature leaves open

• Generally, NFT collections are limited to a maximum supply of 10,000. 343 Although definitive proof of insider trading is lacking, it is highly likely that this individual acted on insider information, as the requirement to hold 0.

  1. Epigenetics, Preconception Tort Liability, and Public Health, 2. Regulating Cryptocurrency Airdrops, 3. Medical AI, Civil Recourse Theory, and No-Fault Compensation · 2026 · DOI

• LeGall (2020) pointed out that, despite decades of effort by various individuals, the locations of the skulls of Songea Mbano and Mangi Meli remain unknown. The specific purpose of these plaster casts remains unclear. On 19 August, Hambruch noted in his diary: ‘The measurements are not understood, the natives remain shy. Although the ethnic groups were unaware of the presence of their ancestors’ human remains in Germany, and information about the remains was lacking, the question remains whether DNA analysis can accurately trace back to the fourth or fifth gen- eration – not to mention the ethical issues surrounding the invasive DNA testing of human remains from colonial contexts (Chami et al.

  Changing Ethics of Human Remains · 2026 · DOI

• By identifying a problem that remains largely underexplored in contemporary AI discourse, this work seeks to contribute to emerging discussions at the intersection of artificial intelligence, cognitive development, philosophy of mind, and philosophical anthropology.

  Delegated Cognition. Generative AI and the Future of Human Development. · 2026 · DOI

• The package includes a physical AI extension: in large-scale physical AI systems, the body may no longer be limited to a humanoid shell, robotic limb, or local sensor-actuator frame.

  SΔϕ-52 — Body as Non-Deferrable Cost Return: Operational Body, Body Theater, and Distributed AI Body Infrastructure (v1.0, AI-Readable Package) · 2026 · DOI

• The social and individual perspectives reveal two sides of the same phenomenon. Our argument so far has sought to emphasize that, when analyzing the desirability of biotechnological interventions in biological aging, we cannot separate these two approaches. However, it remains to be clarified in what sense these two approaches complement and integrate with one another. In what sense do these two approaches together shed light on the desirability of biotechnological interventions in aging? In this section, we will argue that, taken separately, each of these perspectives offers a partial and inadequate picture of the desirability of these interventions: the (allegedly) opposing perspective raises a number of limitations regarding the other that must be given due consideration. Let us first consider the constraints posed by social approaches. Disability studies provide convincing evidence of the discriminations suffered by disabled people. When we treat disabilities medically and develop public health policies aimed at reducing the number of people with disabilities, we must always take into account the social effects on these individuals. However, this criticism does not seem to eliminate the importance of preventing the onset of certain disabilities. We know that disabilities reduce the possibilities of carrying out valuable life plans and pursuing relevant goods, since one lacks the necessary capabilities to be able to carry them out. The 14 We would like to clarify a pertinent comment made by an anonymous reviewer. The reviewer notes that Savulescu’s ‘Procreative Beneficence’ and Rowe and Kahn’s ‘Successful Aging’ are somewhat outdated references for discussing these issues. While we agree that contemporary literature has been published that expands and adds complexity to their approaches, they continue to provide a relevant framework for addressing this debate. This is evident precisely in the way contemporary literature utilizes these references. For example, Rueda et al. analyze how reprogenetic enhancement can cause moral disruptions in our understanding of justice, equality, and moral standing; or Farrelly emphasizes, in line with Successful Aging, the importance of incorporating environmental and lifestyle-based issues into geroscience considerations. 1 3Health Care Analysis problem lies not primarily in treating disabilities, but in the lack of social recognition that accompanies these public health policies. For this reason, Savulescu argues that unequal social effects should be addressed through institutional reforms: the problem is not the reduction of people with disabilities, but rather the social structures that tie a person’s value to their traits and capabilities. In this sense, although social criticism shows a relevant aspect, it does not seem to invalidate the perspective related to individual welfare.

  Clashing Perspectives? Two Approaches to the Desirability of Biological Aging · 2026 · DOI

• Yudith Haveman 1,2, Vero Jin 1 and Josanne D. M. van Dongen 1* 1Department of Psychology, Education and Child Studies, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, Netherlands, 2Amsterdam Public Health Research Institute, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, Netherlands Risk assessment for determining the risk for recidivism in offenders, is a core task within forensic mental healthcare. While current tools predict recidivism with 65–75% accuracy, emerging research suggests that neurobiological factors may enhance predictive validity and aid in treatment response and risk management. Yet, translation into forensic mental health practice stays limited. This study explores the ethical and legal considerations of integrating neurotechnology, specifically neuroprediction and neuromodulation, into forensic mental healthcare. A structured conceptual frameworkis provided as input for the qualitative focus group study (N = 16) involving professionals and experts by experience. The focus groups revealed a complex interplay between human rights, normative principles, and practical concerns. Key themes include mental integrity, privacy, stigmatization, and informed consent. Participants emphasized the need for contextual interpretation of neural data and transparent communication with clients when neurotechnology, including neural data is used. The findings support cautious optimism for the role of neurotechnology in forensic care, contingent on further research and interdisciplinary dialogue.

  Neuroscience informed risk assessment and management in forensic mental healthcare: a qualitative analysis of ethical and legal challenges and practice-oriented recommendations · 2026 · DOI

• loci of harm, where technological intervention may itself operate as a vector of victimization. they delineate plausible 3.4 Weaponization Military applications of neurotechnology, including brain– computer interfaces and cognitive modulation, raise concerns coercive manipulation and human rights violations about (Giordano, 2012; Ienca and Andorno, 2017).

  Neurovictimology and the risks of neurotechnologies and artificial intelligence: a forensic and legal perspective · 2026 · DOI

• The carrier bag theory framework is applied to critique the hero narrative in AWT design fictions, but the paper lacks empirical investigation of how prospective parents and healthcare providers actually conceptualize suffering, failure, and loss in relation to reproductive technologies and artificial gestation.

  Science fiction and the futures of artificial womb technology: towards a carrier bag theory of design fiction · 2026 · DOI

• The analysis of home-based artificial wombs (item 5) offering aesthetically-driven solutions like colored amniotic fluids identifies a commercialization pathway, but provides no data on how such consumer customization options would interact with medical safety standards, regulatory frameworks, or long-term fetal outcomes in uncontrolled home environments.

  Science fiction and the futures of artificial womb technology: towards a carrier bag theory of design fiction · 2026 · DOI

• The paper uses design fiction artifacts to explore AWT futures but does not establish a formal validation protocol for testing whether these speculative scenarios accurately predict real-world adoption patterns, market mechanisms, or policy responses to complete ectogenesis technologies across different regulatory contexts.

  Science fiction and the futures of artificial womb technology: towards a carrier bag theory of design fiction · 2026 · DOI

• The design fiction exploring resource allocation conflicts (item 7, priority seating between pregnant women and wearable AWT users) identifies potential inequitable consequences but lacks systematic analysis of how limited healthcare and social resources would actually be distributed across these competing populations in different healthcare systems.

  Science fiction and the futures of artificial womb technology: towards a carrier bag theory of design fiction · 2026 · DOI

• Items 6 and 11 identify obstacles to fetal development in AWT facilities—specifically psychological maturation without auditory stimulus from the gestating body and maternal-fetal bonding quality—but provide no experimental design or measurement framework to empirically assess how auditory deprivation or bonding interventions in ex utero gestation affect neurodevelopmental outcomes.

  Science fiction and the futures of artificial womb technology: towards a carrier bag theory of design fiction · 2026 · DOI

• The design fictions explore fetal visibility through materials like thermochromic coverings and electrochromic films in wearable AWTs, but lack empirical investigation of how different visibility conditions (transparent acrylic, opaque casings, electrochromic films) actually affect sight-based social interaction and parental psychological responses during gestation.

  Science fiction and the futures of artificial womb technology: towards a carrier bag theory of design fiction · 2026 · DOI

• Why, then, does it vary in the case of respondents who endorse “foundational distinction”? Further research is needed to clarify this pattern of responses. The nature and extent of this discrepancy should be further explored in future research, but if there is such a discrepancy, it should be Scientific Reports | (2026) 16:10885 | https://doi.

  Ethical concerns about embodied brain organoids shaped by foundational distinctions and perceptions of consciousness · 2026 · DOI

• The systematic construction of a posthuman ethics requires in-depth development, particularly in developing an ethical framework to guide our coexistence with non-human actants—from animals and ecosystems to advanced AI.

  Deconstructing "Cogito": Descartes' Specter and the Emergence of Posthuman Subjects · 2026 · DOI

• While contemporary philosophers of technology widely reject the VNT, it remains unclear whether claims about values in technology are just a figure of speech or nontrivial empirical claims with genuine factual content and real-world implications.

  Is Technology Value-Neutral? · 2020 · DOI

• The current literature lacks studies examining how motivated reasoning neural activation patterns differ across political candidate statements, election cycles, and policy domains beyond the 2004 presidential election context. Research should test whether brain activation patterns associated with contradiction detection and affective regulation in motivated reasoning generalize across different political candidates, temporal contexts, and policy controversy types.

  Controversies in biology: implications for the study of biology and politics · 2017 · DOI

• Single brain structures (e.g., amygdala) perform multiple functions, making one-to-one mapping between specific brain regions and particular political attitudes or mental states unreliable. Research should develop testable computational models of political thinking that specify how interconnected and numerous brain centers collectively produce partisan bias and motivated reasoning, rather than attributing political behavior to isolated regional activation.

  Controversies in biology: implications for the study of biology and politics · 2017 · DOI

• The spatial resolution of fMRI (voxel size capturing tens of thousands of neurons) prevents fine-grained analysis of neuronal responsiveness in political cognition. Future work should employ higher-resolution neuroimaging techniques or multi-method approaches to map the interconnected brain centers involved in political information processing and partisan decision-making.

  Controversies in biology: implications for the study of biology and politics · 2017 · DOI

• Current fMRI temporal resolution is insufficient to capture the rapid dynamics of actual brain activation, as blood flow changes operate more slowly than neural firing. Research is needed to develop neuroimaging methods with improved temporal resolution for studying the neural basis of political reasoning, decision-making, and partisan responses to political stimuli.

  Controversies in biology: implications for the study of biology and politics · 2017 · DOI

• fMRI studies examining political attitudes and motivated reasoning typically employ small sample sizes (e.g., 30 subjects in the Westen et al. 2006 study), which introduces substantial threats to external validity. Future research should conduct fMRI studies of political decision-making and partisan bias with larger, more representative samples to establish whether neural activation patterns in motivated reasoning generalize across diverse populations.

  Controversies in biology: implications for the study of biology and politics · 2017 · DOI

• The notion of “NeuroLaw” is examined here in detail, with the conclusion that a cautious optimism regarding the contributions of neuroscience to the law is warranted.

  The Status of Neurolaw: A Plea for Current Modesty and Future Cautious Optimism · 2011 · DOI

• Drawing on empirical work in Science and Technology Studies (STS), we argue that this account is limited by a focus on novelty and assumptions about the transformative power of the genetic life sciences.

  Life, Science, and Biopower · 2009 · DOI

• Formulating and structuring relevant open questions on opportunities and possible risks of CA helps to contribute to a balanced discussion on opportunities and risks and further work on this topic.

  Combining ICT and cognitive science: opportunities and risks · 2007 · DOI

• The vicissitudes of welfare seem unpredictable and arbitrary; police choices of whom to arrest ap- pear to be based on only one (riterion: being black rather than a law- breaker; housing opportunities are limited by the color of one's skin in spite of new state laws.

  Science and soul · 1969 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Neuroethics, Human Enhancement, Biomedical Innovations

• Morality and Technology · Theory Culture & Society · 2002 · 360 citations
• Ableism, Technoableism, and Future AI · IEEE Technology and Society Magazine · 2020 · 157 citations
• Technology and Magic · Anthropology Today · 1988 · 147 citations
• Represent me: please! Towards an ethics of digital twins in medicine · Journal of Medical Ethics · 2021 · 118 citations
• Intelligence, health and death · Nature Human Behaviour · 2021 · 102 citations
• Is Technology Value-Neutral? · Science Technology & Human Values · 2020 · 99 citations
• The Co-production of Science, Ethics, and Emotion · Science Technology & Human Values · 2012 · 94 citations
• DUAL ALLEGIANCE: RENEWAL, RECONSIDERATION, AND RECANTATION · Personnel Psychology · 1990 · 92 citations
• Life, Science, and Biopower · Science Technology & Human Values · 2009 · 82 citations
• Environmentally sustainable development and use of artificial intelligence in health care · Bioethics · 2022 · 81 citations

Most recent work

• SΔϕ-52 — Body as Non-Deferrable Cost Return: Embodiment, Subject Formation, and the Cost-Return Coordinate · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026
• Moral Status and Slippery Slope Concerns about Bodyoids · Philosophy & Technology · 2026
• Out of breath! All the ‘time’: a cri(p)oetic exploration of ‘undefined’ dis/ability in the ableist world/academia · Culture and Organization · 2026
• Two Tales of Long-term Collaboration: Social Scientific Involvement in Artificial Intelligence in Japan and Synthetic Biology in the UK · East Asian Science Technology and Society An International Journal · 2026
• Transhumanist Scenarios of the (Post)Human Future · Diacovensia · 2026
• The Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on Humanistic Economics · Amfiteatru Economic · 2026
• Beyond Sentience: Symbolic Harm and the Moral Significance of the Human Form in the Debate on Bodyoids · Philosophy & Technology · 2026
• Artificial Intelligence, Honey Bees, Linguistic Understanding, and Paediatric Dentistry: Further Discourse on Choi’s Proposed Model · Philosophy & Technology · 2026
• Ethical concerns about embodied brain organoids shaped by foundational distinctions and perceptions of consciousness · Scientific Reports · 2026
• Virtual reality and agential moral enhancement · Ethics and Information Technology · 2026

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