Open research questions in Sports Performance and Training

What the literature leaves open

• Narrative synthesis showed inconsistent findings for jump and sprint performance, although some studies reported improvements in 30-m sprint performance.

  Effects of high-intensity interval training on cardiorespiratory fitness, jump, and sprint performance in male under-20 soccer players: a systematic review · 2026 · DOI

• While these non-motorised surface water sports differ significantly in their physiological profiles and environmental demands, grouping them allows for a comprehensive overview of athlete monitoring methodologies across the sports, identifying shared technological challenges and gaps in the literature.

  Competition and training load of high-level competitive non-motorised surface water sports athletes: a scoping review of athlete monitoring methodology · 2026 · DOI

• However, limited evidence is available regarding the relationship between RAE, playing-position distribution, and tactical-technical performance among competitive university volleyball players in India.

  Relative age effect in volleyball: Does early birth influence elite success? · 2026 · DOI

• Vertical jump with countermovement (VJM) remains a preferred indicator of neuromuscular status, but recovery kinetics after microcycles of contrasting intensity remain insufficiently documented in young athletes.

  Effect of Training Load and Recovery Time on Neuromuscular Performance in Elite Youth Soccer Players · 2026 · DOI

• Peak pelvic rotation angle (PPRA) at the top of the backswing has been proposed as an important biomechanical factor contributing to swing performance; however, previous studies have reported conflicting findings regarding whether greater pelvic rotation is associated with superior outcomes.

  An Investigation into the Biomechanical Role of Peak Pelvic Rotation in Golf Swing · 2026 · DOI

• Plyometric training is proposed as a method for improving neuromuscular performance in climbing; however, its specific effects on upper-body explosive power and rate of force development (RFD) in male boulderers, ranging from trained to highly trained, remain unclear.

  The Effects of Plyometric Training on Selected Neuromuscular Outcomes in Trained-to-Highly Trained Male Boulder Climbers: A Preliminary Exploratory Trial · 2026 · DOI

• Incorporating an arm swing (AS) enhances CMJ outcomes, yet the contributions of anthropometrics, body composition (BC), and muscular power to performance are not fully understood in recreationally active adults.

  Contributions of Upper- and Lower-Body Power to Countermovement Jump Performance with and Without Arm Swing · 2026 · DOI

• There are many avenues of future work that would be interesting to pursue. For example, the initial studies shows that using a single accelerometer brings limita- tions. The constant pull of gravity of 1G is impossible to remove from such a sensor’s output, making it difficult to get the same reading when strumming up and down (lat- eral motions are therefore preferable). The IMU men- tioned in section 3.2 will help to resolve this issue, by allowing us to remove gravity effects through a calcula- tion of the residual accelerations after subtracting the gravity vector. It should also enable us to explore much more detailed interaction due to the greater number of sensor types. Trying completely different types of sensors, as men- tioned in section 3.2, is also something we plan to pursue. Standard ‘sip and puff’ or simple force-sensitive resistor types of sensors would facilitate entirely different types of input, and could be interesting helps for more severely disabled people to strum the guitar. 7. CONCLUSIONS We have shown that it is possible to enable or re-enable people to strum a guitar using an accelerometer as input controlling an actuated guitar using different body parts. Drawing on a range of inspiration we have shown that disabilities does not need to stop people to explore and experience normal instruments made for people without disabilities.

  Use of a mechanical adaptation to enhance guitar learning technique · 2026 · DOI

• However, given the limited number of studies, the optimal RWU strategy remains unclear. In addition, RWU performed after the initial warm-up may be more effective than halftime RWU in improving jumping and COD performance compared with the control condition; however, this finding should be interpreted with caution and warrants further investigation due to the limited evidence base.

  Acute effects of re-warm-up on physical performance, muscle temperature, and perceived exertion in basketball players: a systematic review and meta-analysis with individual participant data · 2026 · DOI

• Analysis of the available literature reveals that the hemodynamic mechanisms underlying ITP occurrence following graded exercise test- ing in athletes remain poorly understood, owing to a lack of experimental evidence, with most researchers relying solely on empirical observa- tions of its frequency.

  Prevalence of the Infinite Tone Phenomenon After the Submaximal PWC170 Test in Adolescent Male Athletes Aged 11–17 Years · 2026 · DOI

• End of the this study, all of the results commend only this group (male n=12) and can be practice similiar others studies. In addition, this qualitative research can be obtained from other research methods to obtain more in-depth results. Nutritional habits should be controlled during the period when maximal strength exercises are applied in amateur sports. Especially during the pre-tournament preparation period, blood measurements should be made and analyzed with the help of experts. Trainers should have knowledge in evaluating these parameters and it is recommended to renew their training and nutritional status according to the performance status of the athletes. REFERENCES Akman, O. & Orhan, Ö. (2020). Genç milli taekwondocuların bacak kuvveti ile çeviklik değerleri arasındaki iliĢkinin incelenmesi. International Social Mentality and Researcher Thinkers Journal, 6(32), 927-935. http://dx.doi.org/10.31576/smryj.543 Ambroży, T., Rydzik, Ł., Kwiatkowski, A., Spieszny, M., Ambroży, D., Rejman, A., & Czarny, W. (2022). Effect of crossfit training on physical fitness of kickboxers. International Journal of Environmental Research And Public Health, 19(8), 4526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084526 Beilke, C., Hetzel, L., Kreft, B., Pan, L., & Schroeder, J. (2012). Crossfit training ımprovements in sport performance and body composition in young healthy adults. Department of Kinesiology, University of Wisconsin-Eau Claire. Beneke, R., Beyer, T., Jachner, C., Erasmus, J., & Hütler, M. (2004). Energetics of karate kumite. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 92(4), 518-523. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-004-1073-x Bompa, T.O. (2007), Training theory and method. Sports Publishing House and Bookstore Buse G. J. (2009) Kickboxing. In: Kordi R, Maffulli N, Wroble R., & Wallace W, (Eds.). Combat Sports Medicine. Springer (pp. 331-351). Çetinkalp, ġ. (2017). Trigliserit nedir? Normal fizyolojideki yeri nedir? Turk Kardiyol Dern Ars, 45(1), 1-63. https://doi:10.5543/tkda.2017.77459 Fox, E. L., Bowers, R. W., & Foss, M. L. (1999) Beden eğitimi ve sporun fizyolojik temelleri. Cerit, M. (Çeviren). Bağırgan Yayınevi Gartland, S., Malik, M. H. A., & Lovell, M. E. (2001). Injury and injury rates in muay thai kick boxing. British Journal of Sports Medicine, 35(5), 308-313. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bjsm.35.5.308 Guyton M. D., & Hall J. E. (1996). Tıbbi fizyoloji (Çeviren Çavusoglu, H.), (9. Baskı), Yüce Yayınları, Alemdar Ofset. Ġpek, Ġ., & Korkmaz, S. (2022). Farklı formlarda uygulanan yüksek Ģiddetli interval antrenmanın muay-thai sporcularının bazı fiziksel ve fizyolojik parametreleri üzerine etkisi.

  The Effects of Strength Training on Physical Performance and Selected Biochemical Parameters in Kickboxers · 2026 · DOI

• Due to the inability to normalize the timed hop variable, it remains unclear whether normalized strength at 60°/sec influences timed hop performance.

  Isokinetic Quadriceps Strength at Slower Speeds Following ACLR More Strongly Influences Hop Test Performance in Adolescent Athletes. · 2026 · DOI

• This interpretation is consistent with the mixed evidence on unstable-surface PAPE and the higher technical demands reported for these conditions (Gómez & Rojas-Jaramillo, 2025; Sæterbakken & Fimland, 2012).

  Post-Activation Performance Enhancement in Badminton Players: A Randomized Crossover Study Comparing the Acute Effects of Four Squat Protocols on CMJ Performance · 2026 · DOI

• 1. Participants ought to incorporate advanced capacity computers for the diminished limbs into classes in dance protocols. 2. To alter travel electrical power and raise rush extent a variety of must be done on a regular basis. 3. Programming demand needs to be changed based on a person's age and level of help. Weight lifting must be combined with technical methods to improve the transfer of skills. Basic field tests like the vertical fly and sprawling jump must become used to see how much athletes have improved. 4. In skill training, the inner workings of its the flights are deemed given a lot of thought. To keep performance from going down because of tiredness, there must be enough time to recover. 5. Mobile and flexible training workshops shall assist building power programs. To make landslides more stable, training programs need to include exercises for balance and tranquility. 6. Subsequent research ought to examine the impact of volatile muscular endurance and strength on rhythmic spectacle of dancing.

  The Relationship Between Lower-Limb Explosive Strength and Jump Performance in Female Rhythmic Gymnasts · 2026 · DOI

• 1. Continuous tracking of athletes' physiological balances by coaches at sports talent schools on a regular basis for two months to monitor muscle mass development and ensure the lack of physical strain. 2. preserving the training intensity. Since the athletes have shown a good response to four training sessions it is suggested to maintain this intensity and gradually increase the number of training sessions in the upcoming phases to achieve maximum technical and physiological benefits. 3. performing future studies that link these physiological variables to physical abilities in general.

  A comparative study of some physiological variables among players of the Sports Talent Center in football aged (14-15) years before and after the implementation of the training units program for a period of one month · 2026 · DOI

• Despite the valuable findings, several limitations must be acknowledged: 1. The national team examined may limit the generalisability. 2. Because the concern is correlational, no causal inference can be made. 3. Energy use was measured by wearables (validated but not easy and a small measurement error) 4. Future research should: Interventional studies to increase oxygen thresholds in the long run. • • Ventilatory threshold and lactate kinetics • Look for markers of neuromuscular fatigue and how they relate to technical degradation. • For comparison, female elite badminton players are also included.

  An Analytical Study of the Variables (Oxygen Threshold and Total Energy Expenditure) and the Ability to Withstand Offensive Skill Performance During the Special Preparation Phase for Advanced Iraqi National Badminton Team Players · 2026 · DOI

• Several limitations should be acknowledged. The study employed a quasi-experimental design, and group allocation was based on logistical constraints rather than random assignment. The sample size was relatively small, and performance measurements were conducted using manual timing under field conditions, which may introduce measurement variability. Additionally, the integrated nature of the training programme limits the ability to determine the specific contribution of individual training components. Future research employing larger samples, randomised designs, and advanced measurement tools may help to further clarify the effects and underlying mechanisms of mixed training programmes in sprint athletes.

  Effect of Mixed Training Module on Key Physical Attributes of Sprinters · 2026 · DOI

• Furthermore, future research should consider expanding the analysis to include lower-tier events, such as ATP 500 and ATP 250 tournaments, which occupy a substantial portion of the competitive calendar and involve a broader population of professional players.

  SAME TOUR, DIFFERENT SEASONS: PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS IN ATP MASTERS 1000 TOURNAMENTS · 2026 · DOI

• • This study, which combines the FIFA 11+ warm-up program with different warm-up programs, should be conducted with more participants, • This study, which combines the FIFA 11+ warm-up program with different warm-up programs, should also be conducted with women, • This study, which combines the FIFA 11+ warm-up program with different warm-up programs, should also be conducted with sports branches other than football players, In addition to the physiotherapy-based methods we use in combination with the FIFA 11+ warm-up program, we also combine the application with other active and passive warm-up methods found in the literatüre, • • The methods we use can also be combined with other warm-up methods instead of the FIFA 11+ warm-up program, • We recommend designing studies that investigate the long-term effects of warming methods, which we examined only for their acute effects. REFERENCES 123 Atış, İ., & Atlı, A. (2026). Comparison of the effects of physiotherapy based warm-up methods combined with fıfa 11+ warm-up program on some performance parameters in football players. Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 20(1), 108-127. Al Attar, W. S. A., Soomro, N., Pappas, E., Sinclair, P. J., & Sanders, R. H. (2017). Adding a post-training FIFA 11+ exercise program to the pre-training FIFA 11+ injury prevention program reduces injury rates among male amateur soccer players: A cluster-randomised trial. J. Physiother, 63, 235-242. AlBedah, A. M. N., El-Olemy, A. T., Khalil, M. K. M., & Qureshi, N. A. (2019). The medical perspective of cupping therapy: Effects and mechanisms of action. Journal of Traditional and Complementary Medicine, 9(2), 90-97. Al-Horani, R. A., Alsays, K. M., & Ihsan, M. (2022). Influence of cupping treatment on high-intensity anaerobic performance. Kinesiology, 54(2), 230-237. Anam, K., Setiowati, A., Indardi, N., Irawan, F. A., Aditia, E. A., & Aziz, A., Pavlovic, R. (2024). The effect of FIFA 11+ kids warm-up program on agility in football: An experimental study. Retos: nuevas tendencias en educación física, deporte y recreación, (56), 631-638. Asgari, M., Schmidt, M., Terschluse, B., Sueck, M., & Jaitner, T. (2023). Acute effects of the FIFA11+ and football+ warm-ups on motor performance. A Crossover Randomized Controlled trial. PloS one, 18(4), 1-13. Ayala, F., Moreno-Perez, V., Vera-Garcia, F. J., Moya, M., Sanz-Rivas, D., & Fernandez-Fernandez, J. (2016). Acute and time-course effects of traditional and dynamic warm-up routines in young elite junior tennis players. PloS One, 11(4), e0152790. Behm, D. G., & Chaouachi, A. (2011). A review of the acute effects of static and dynamic stretching on performance. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 111(11), 2633-2651. Bergh, U., & Ekblom, B. (1979).

  Comparison of the Effects of Physiotherapy Based Warm-Up Methods Combined with FIFA 11+ Warm-Up Program on Some Performance Parameters in Football Players · 2026 · DOI

• Future studies should investigate the long-term effects of integrating physiotherapy-based methods into structured warm-up programs and explore underlying neuromuscular and physiological mechanisms. Since the present findings are limited to acute responses in a relatively homogeneous sample of young male football players, caution is warranted when generalizing the results.

  Comparison of the Effects of Physiotherapy Based Warm-Up Methods Combined with FIFA 11+ Warm-Up Program on Some Performance Parameters in Football Players · 2026 · DOI

• The study has the following limitations: - The study was conducted with 10 football players, - The study lasted 8 weeks, - Performance was measured with dribbling, short passing, set-piece shooting, and post-pass shooting tests, - Since the study was conducted on a single group with pre-test and post-test measurements, there was no control group. REFERENCES Afonso, P., Forte, P., Branquinho, L., Ferraz, R., Garrido, N. D., & Teixeira, J. E. (2025). Shaping training load, technical–tactical behaviour, and well-being in football: a systematic review. Sports, 13(8), 244. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080244 Aktuğ, Z. (2013). Relationship of isokinetic hamstrings-to-quadriceps peak torque ratio with vertical jump and speed performance in soccer players, [Master Thesis], Selcuk University İnstitute of Health Science, Konya. Akyüz, A. (2023). The effect of resistance band training on some football technical skills in football players aged 16-18. [Master Thesis], Selcuk University İnstitute of Health Science, Konya. Akman, T., Kabadayı, M., Elıoz, M., Clhoroz, B., & Akyol, P. (2013). Effect of jogging and core training after supramaximal 73-77. https://doi.org/10.15314/tjse.40708 and Exercise, 15(1), recovery.

  The Effect of Different Strength Training Exercises on the Performance Success of U17 Football Team Athletes · 2026 · DOI

• Studies such as those by Zaichkowsky and Fuchs sug- gest that biofeedback techniques have positive effects on stress management and performance enhancement, but the validity of these findings remains unclear across different populations and sports [71]. Nevertheless, there is scarce informa- questioned.

  Impact of Biofeedback Training on Athletic Performance and Mental Well-Being · 2026 · DOI

• that NHE is more effective in developing H muscle Athletes aiming to enhance their H muscle strength can strength, and some show that SLDE is more effective, opt for either SLDE or NHE, as both exercises facilitate there is no consensus on which exercise provides better similar improvements.

  Comparison of The Effects of Nordic Hamstring and Single Leg Deadlift Exercises on Hamstring Muscle Strength and Extremity Symmetry Index: An Experimental Study · 2026 · DOI

• This part develops strategic directions for the further development of the PPO-based optimization framework. The main directions are the generalization of the model to multi-agent models, the application of psychological and nutritional requirement modeling, and communication with real-time monitoring systems for athletes. These developments aim to enhance the contextual intelligence, generalizability, and usability of the model, transforming it into a ubiquitous agent for performance and well-being in dynamic sport settings, thereby achieving greater autonomy and precision. A Proximal Policy Optimization-Based Reinforcement… Informatica 50 (2026) 279–292 291 learning approach to personalized exercise goal setting,” DIGITAL HEALTH, vol. 10, Jan. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/20552076241233247. Y. Liu, “Personalized Physical Education Teaching Path Planning and Optimization Based on Deep Reinforcement Learning,” Applied Mathematics and Nonlinear Sciences, vol. 9, no. 1, Jan. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.2478/amns-2024-3192. Li, G., Lin, S., Li, S., & Qu, X. (2022). Learning automated driving in complex intersection scenarios based on camera sensors: A deep reinforcement learning approach. IEEE Sensors Journal, 22(5), 4687-4696. Y. Wang, G. Shan, H. Li, and L. Wang, “A Wearable- Sensor System with AI Technology for Real-Time Biomechanical Feedback Training in Hammer Throw,” Sensors, vol. 23, no. 1, pp. 425–425, Dec. 2022, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010425. N. Mateus, E. Abade, D. Coutinho, Miguel-Ángel Gómez, C. L. Peñas, and J. Sampaio, “Empowering the Sports Scientist with Artificial Intelligence in Training, Performance, and Health Management,” Sensors, vol. 25, no. 1, pp. 139–139, Dec. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/s25010139. P. Liao, K. Greenewald, P. Klasnja, and S. Murphy, “Personalized HeartSteps,” Proceedings of the ACM on Interactive, Mobile, Wearable and Ubiquitous Technologies, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1–22, Mar. 2020, doi: https://doi.org/10.1145/3381007. A. D. Pelosi, N. Roth, Tal Yehoshua, Dorit Itah, Orit Braun Benyamin, and A. Dahan, “Personalized rehabilitation approach for reaching movement using reinforcement learning,” Scientific Reports, vol. 14, no. 1, Jul. 2024, doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598- 024-64514-6. A.-W. de Leeuw, S. van der Zwaard, R. van Baar, and A. Knobbe, “Personalized machine learning approach to injury monitoring in elite volleyball players,” European Journal of Sport Science, pp. 1–10, Feb. 2021, doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/17461391.2021.1887369. J. Link, T. Perst, M. Stoeve, and B. M.

  A Proximal Policy Optimization-Based Reinforcement Learning Framework for Real-Time Personalized Endurance Training · 2026 · DOI

• its methodological indicator provides practical a sensitive to both detraining and retraining processes in team sport athletes (29), underscoring the importance of periodic assessment. Additionally, changes in body composition across competitive seasons can influence performance and injury risk profiles, particularly in female athletes (28). Finally, performance validation requires linkage to notational analysis, as match- derived indicators (e.g., defensive and offensive efficiency, fast breaks, goalkeeper effectiveness) differentiate winning and losing teams in handball (30–32). Despite the availability of these monitoring tools, there is limited empirical guidance on how to integrate internal load indices, neuromuscular readiness, strength and endurance monitoring, body composition, and match analytics into a semi-professional coherent decision-making female handball. framework turnovers, efficiency, shooting and for In team handball, increasing match congestion, extended competitive calendars, and the multidimensional nature of to performance require more context-sensitive approaches training management, particularly in semi-professional settings. In semi-professional female handball, training processes are further constrained by limited training time and restricted recovery resources, which may reduce the applicability of rigid preplanned periodization models. Consequently, ecologically valid the dynamic interactions among training load, athlete responses, and match performance across the entire competitive season are needed. Although previous studies have examined isolated components such as internal load, neuromuscular fatigue, and subjective well-being, these variables within a comprehensive, season-long framework in semi-professional team sports contexts. integrated monitoring approaches few studies have that capture investigated The aims of this study were: 1) to investigate the temporal dynamics and training and interrelationships among key performance variables across the competition season, and 2) to establish reference ranges for integrated monitoring variables to support adaptive, data-informed microcycle adjustments in semi-professional female handball.

  Integrated monitoring of training and sport performance throughout an entire handball season: practical applications in semi-professional female players · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Sports Performance and Training

• Correlation of Throwing Mechanics With Elbow Valgus Load in Adult Baseball Pitchers · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · 2009 · 308 citations
• Hamstring Musculotendon Dynamics during Stance and Swing Phases of High-Speed Running · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2010 · 272 citations
• Wearable Sensors for Real-Time Kinematics Analysis in Sports: A Review · IEEE Sensors Journal · 2020 · 263 citations
• Shoe Midsole Longitudinal Bending Stiffness and Running Economy, Joint Energy, and EMG · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2006 · 257 citations
• Neuromuscular Performance of Explosive Power Athletes versus Untrained Individuals · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2010 · 239 citations
• Leg power and hopping stiffness: relationship with sprint running performance · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2001 · 232 citations
• Running Technique is an Important Component of Running Economy and Performance · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2017 · 212 citations
• Changes in Shoulder and Elbow Passive Range of Motion after Pitching in Professional Baseball Players · The American Journal of Sports Medicine · 2007 · 194 citations
• Hip muscle imbalance and low back pain in athletes: influence of core strengthening · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2002 · 190 citations
• Variability and Predictability of Finals Times of Elite Rowers · Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise · 2011 · 140 citations

Most recent work

• Applying Artificial Intelligence to Determine the Required Positions in Each Discipline for Overall Olympic Triathlon Success · Applied Sciences · 2026
• Gender differences in phases of play by match outcomes and football confederations during the FIFA U-20 World Cup · Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part P: Journal of Sports Engineering and Technology · 2026
• Physiological contributions to successful downhill mountain bike performance · Research Output (Edinburgh Napier University) · 2026
• A Proximal Policy Optimization-Based Reinforcement Learning Framework for Real-Time Personalized Endurance Training · Informatica · 2026
• Study on Statistical Parameters in Basketball for Junior Female Players in The Age Categories Under 13, Under 14, Under 15 and Under 16 Years Old · Research and Science Today · 2026
• Different Accuracy of Commercial Devices for Monitoring Movement Velocity During Resistance Training · Measurement in Physical Education and Exercise Science · 2026
• Relative anthropometric parameters as predictors of strength abilities of Olympic weightlifters · Journal of Coaching and Sports Science · 2026
• Improving longitudinal performance assessment of youth soccer players: 10 m sprint percentile curves adapted to biological age · Science and Medicine in Football · 2026
• Unifying to Advance Understanding: Collaborative, Community-Driven and ‘Open’ Approaches for Better Science in Sport · Sports Medicine · 2026
• Evaluation of Percentage-Based and RPE-Based Monitoring of Novice Powerlifters in Optimizing Powerlifting Performance · Sorsogon Multidisciplinary Research Journal · 2026

Related topics in Medicine