Open research questions in Collaborative Teaching and Inclusion

What the literature leaves open

• Investigating the ideal conditions for high-achieving students to transform their thinking, - Examining the impediments to true dialogic engagement in peer-to-peer negotiations

  Using Partner Interviews to Support Language and Mathematics Development for Elementary Multilingual Learners · 2026 · DOI

• The study only collected data through focus group discussions with 10 teacher educators, - The study did not provide a comprehensive analysis of the curriculum, - The study was limited to the perspectives of teacher educators in Ghana

  Curriculum gaps in pre-service teacher preparation for inclusive education in Ghana: teacher educators' perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• The curriculum has significant gaps in depth, organization, duration, and practical orientation. Inclusive education content is narrowly focused on disability identification. The curriculum provides limited opportunities for the development of practical pedagogical competencies.

  Curriculum gaps in pre-service teacher preparation for inclusive education in Ghana: teacher educators' perspectives · 2026 · DOI

• ECSETs lack consultation skills, which are important for the success of consultative work. The study highlights the need to develop contextual structures to support the successful implementation of consultative work. The study identifies the diverse and dynamic environments in which ECSETs operate as a challenge for consultative work.

  Consultative roles of early childhood special education teachers: A modeler, an advisor, and a spontaneous practitioner · 2024 · DOI

• The study had a limited sample size of 207 ECSETs. The study only included ECSETs working in municipal ECEC contexts in Finland. The study relied on self-reported data from the survey.

  Consultative roles of early childhood special education teachers: A modeler, an advisor, and a spontaneous practitioner · 2024 · DOI

• Few studies have examined practitioner definitions of inclusive education and how definitions influence perspectives on implementation.

  “Not an Easy Question”: Unclear Definitions and Uncertainty Overshadow Inclusive Education Initiatives · 2026 · DOI

• Not much is known about the demographic and professional profiles of paraeducators who leave the workforce, nor patterns that make turnover more or less likely.

  Turnover Patterns in the Paraeducator Workforce in Washington State · 2026 · DOI

• While the use of paraeducators has steadily increased over past decades, there is limited research on how school demographics impact the number of paraeducators working in a school.

  School Composition and Paraeducator Staffing: A National Analysis · 2026 · DOI

• Although co-teaching is increasingly recognized as a valuable approach in inclusive education, comprehensive studies that examine the impact of targeted professional development on enhancing teachers’ capabilities in this area are lacking.

  Effects of a Training Program to Improve Co-Teaching and Collaboration Skills for In-Service Teachers of Special and General Education · 2024 · DOI

• The limited research on this topic fails to provide clear evidence of the effectiveness of such training programs and their potential benefits for special education and general education teachers.

  Effects of a Training Program to Improve Co-Teaching and Collaboration Skills for In-Service Teachers of Special and General Education · 2024 · DOI

• BACKGROUND: Little is known about what happens when patients and caregivers are involved in an academic setting as co-teachers and how healthcare professionals approach a new model of partnership-based teaching.

  Learning to teach with patients and caregivers: a focused ethnography · 2024 · DOI

• Even Hagerty and Abramson, who recognize the intransigence of advocacy groups, are them selves against official limits on the number of children identified as handicapped. Categorical caps would not resolve the problems of inade quate instruction, they say. But caps on the percentage of mild handicaps would stop run- away overidentification. If special education advocates are afraid of losing resources for hard-to-teach children, why not bargain explic itly? For example, the state and federal govern ments could pay the full cost of education for the 4% of children who are most severely disabled so long as each district provided evidence that it was spending an equal number of dollars serving its low achieving population. A policy of this sort would guarantee services to the most seriously impaired, would permit greater flexibility, would avoid categorical labels for mild problems, could clearly increase the number of at-risk children served without in creased cost (assessment dollars would be redirected to instruction), and would ensure that districts continued to invest in remedial services. If special educators are not willing to enter into negotiations of this type, the present system is likely to grow until is harshly curtailed by a political backlash. it The desirable reintegration of special and regular education to provide a continuum of instructional services, advocated by the preced ing articles, will not occur until the proposals for funding algorithms are as altruistic as Pugach's suggestions for teacher training. Spe cial education will have to lose to gain what it seeks for a huge population of at-risk children. REFERENCES National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative foreduca tional reform. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education. Shepard, L., & Smith, M. L. (with Davis, A., Glass, G. V.,Riley, A., & Vojir, C.). (1981). Evaluation of the identification of perceptual-communicative disor ders in Colorado. Boulder, co: Laboratory of Educational Research. Shepard, L. A., Smith, M. L., & Vojir, C. P. (1983). Characteristics of pupils identified as learning disabled. The Journal of Special Education, 16, 73-85. Ysseldyke, J. E., Algozzine, B., Shinn, M. R, & McGue, M. (1982). Similarities and differences between low achievers and students labeled learn ing disabled. The Journal of Special Education, 16, 73-85.

  The New Push for Excellence: Widening the Schism between Regular and Special Education · 1987 · DOI

• An important point that should be noted is that students should not be referred or recommended for placement in GT programs based on the limited information contained in our vignette.

  Referral and placement recommendations of teachers toward gifted handicapped children · 1987 · DOI

• Further investigation is needed to determine the causes of the two trends noted for Hispanic students: Hispanic representation in EMR classes declined, while their rep- resentation in LD classes increased (though only slightly). Solutions for the problem-whether the source of the problem is in referral, assessment, or both- remain elusive. What remains uncertain is the extent to which minority children have been appropriately referred, diag- nosed, and placed.

  Representation of Minority Students in Special Education Classes · 1987 · DOI

• To date, the transdisciplinary model has been used almost exclusively for children with severe/profound McCormick handicaps (e.g., Blaine & Sobsey,1983; & Goldman,1979; Sears, 1981; Sirvis, 1978; United Cerebral Palsy Association, 1976). Conceivably, the model could be used for all exceptionalities, in- cluding gifted. The task of mentors preparing special educators is to design programs that will train future professionals to have a working knowledge of the transd iscipl i nary model and the skills to be able to use it in the field. Six &dquo;role transitions&dquo; concerning roles have been outlined by the United Cerebral Palsy Association (1976) as necessary collaboration skills. First, role extension entails designing and im- plementing instructional objectives within one’s own discipline. Second, role enrichment involves design- ing instructional objectives to include strategies from other disciplines. Third, role expansion involves deriving information from the deliberate pooling of knowledge and skills among team members. Fourth, role exchange permits carrying out the intervention strategies learned from other team members. Fifth, role release involves effectively imparting disciplinary skills to others and providing follow through to ensure appropriate application. Sixth, role support, used in complex interventions, entails using consultative back-up when extensive disci- plinary expertise is needed. For students to be trained in role transitions, the departmental isolation that now exists in most uni- versities must be transformed into an atmosphere of active cooperation (Pugach & Allen-Meares, 1985). As Courtney (1984) has argued, &dquo;If team train- ing is going to succeed as a major instructional unit in teacher training, collaboration from all appropriate departments is necessary to bring student’s require- ments into one training unit&dquo; (p. 7). Appropriate

  Transd miscin pi i nary Training · 1987 · DOI

• Although the discussion was limited to the prepara- tion of special educators, much of the information provided in this article is also applicable to the preparation of regular educators.

  Preparing Special Educators for Mainstreaming · 1987 · DOI

• International scholarship underscores 2.1 Inclusive Mathematics Education Inclusive mathematics education encompasses instructional practices designed to ensure that all learners, including pupils with diverse learning needs, can meaningfully engage in mathematical learning experiences (Moodley & Chetty, 2024). inclusive mathematics classrooms not only enhance equitable access to the curriculum but also cultivate positive mathematical identities, learner agency, and a sense of belonging (Beighton, 2024). Research further suggests that, when effectively implemented, inclusive mathematics environments support deeper conceptual understanding, the use of multiple encourage collaborative reasoning, and representations of mathematical concepts benefiting all pupils (Bessarab et al., 2023; Pokhrel et al., 2024). facilitate that In Malaysia, inclusive mathematics instruction is situated within the Ministry of Education Inclusive Programme which advocates for the integration of pupils with disabilities into mainstream classrooms, including mathematics instruction (Special Education Department, 2018). However, where appropriate implementation varies significantly across schools, shaped by differences in teacher preparedness, access to instructional resources, and institutional attitudes toward inclusion (Curriculum Development Department, 2017). While national policies articulate a clear vision for inclusive education, challenges persist in operationalizing these values within mathematics classrooms (Rosli et al., 2022). The subject’s traditional emphasis on standardization, procedural fluency, and rigid curriculum pacing often conflicts with inclusive pedagogical practices (Curriculum Development Department, 2017). These systemic tensions shape both the instructional realities and the pedagogical expectations placed upon mathematics teachers in inclusive educational settings (Lubis et al., 2021). 2.2 Pedagogical Approaches in Inclusive Mathematics Teaching Effective inclusive mathematics instruction necessitates the use of pedagogical strategies grounded in evidence-based frameworks, such as Universal Design for Learning (UDL) (CAST, 2018), Differentiated Instruction (DI), and instructional scaffolding (Jutte & Luken, 2020). UDL promotes flexible instructional pathways by incorporating multiple means of representation, engagement, and expression, thereby enabling diverse learners to access mathematical content through various http://ijlter.org/index.php/ijlter 586 modalities (Stasiunaitiene & Navaitiene, 2021). Differentiated instruction, by contrast, focuses on tailoring tasks, support mechanisms, and pacing to learners’ readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles (Rodrigues et al., 2022). Scaffolding techniques including guided questioning, structured modeling, visual aids, and the Concrete–Representational–Abstract (CRA) instructional sequence have also proven effective in supporting pupils with learning difficulties in mathematics (Cameron, 2025; Yakubova et al., 2020). These approaches help bridge the gap between learners’ existing knowledge and abstract reasoning, thereby facilitating conceptual understanding (Purwadi et al., 2019). Additionally, the use of multimodal instruction, manipulatives, and visual thinking tools enhances cognitive accessibility for pupils who struggle with symbolic representation and linear problem-solving processes (Miyauchi, 2020). Nevertheless, implementing these strategies requires careful instructional planning. Mathematics educators must align inclusive teaching practices with curriculum goals, ensuring that necessary adaptations maintain both task rigor and conceptual depth. Striking this balance remains a core pedagogical challenge in inclusive mathematics classrooms (Chuen et al., 2022; Haris & Khairuddin, 2021). 2.3 Teacher Professional Knowledge in Inclusive Mathematics Teaching Teacher professional knowledge is a critical determinant of effective inclusive mathematics teaching, particularly in classrooms that accommodate inclusive pupils. In inclusive mathematics settings, teachers are required to make informed instructional decisions that ensure accessibility while maintaining conceptual rigour and alignment with curriculum standards (Greenstein & Baglieri, 2018).

  Exploring Inclusive Mathematics Pedagogical Practices: A Case Study of Malaysian Primary School Teachers · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the understanding of the relationship between team-teaching climate and students' perceptions of role conflict and role clarity. Prior research has not fully explored the impact of team-teaching climate on learning outcomes.

  Role Clarity and Conflict in Team Teaching: Impacts on Student Learning Outcomes in Higher Education · 2026 · DOI

• Several limitations of this study should be noted. First, the study focuses only on student perceptions of team-teaching member dynamics and their impact on perceived competency and satisfaction. This study does not consider student factors like work effort or motivation, which may influence perceived competency and satisfaction. Second, the study relies on student perceptions and does not include an objective competency-based measure, such as course grade. Incorporating an objective competency measure may alter the degree of explained variance. Third, this study is limited to a single university and one course. Although students in the study majored in various disciplines across the university, future research should examine multiple universities across a broader range of disciplines and diverse student demographics to improve generalizability and extend these findings. Fourth, the study focuses on short-term outcomes only. Longitudinal research could investigate the sustained impact of team-taught courses on student learning outcomes. Fifth, although the deductive thematic analysis supports alignment with the study’s hypotheses and quantitative findings, it may limit the identification of unexpected or emergent themes. An inductive approach could be used in future studies to identify novel insights arising from open-ended qualitative data. Finally, examining multiple team-taught courses could provide insight into faculty perspectives and their alignment with students’ views on the impact of team teaching on role conflict and role clarity. 19 Future research should incorporate student-level factors and instructor team dynamics when examining perceived competency and satisfaction. Such research would provide a richer basis for developing instructional strategies that leverage the collective knowledge of teaching teams and support a broader range of students. For example, while student role conflict may arise from differing instructor expectations, prior research suggests that improved and sustained communication can reduce role conflict (Tidd & Friedman, 2002).

  Role Clarity and Conflict in Team Teaching: Impacts on Student Learning Outcomes in Higher Education · 2026 · DOI

• The study identified challenges in infrastructure, including the absence of adequate accessibility. The research noted challenges in teacher training, including the lack of specific training in the area of inclusion. The paper highlighted challenges in intersectoral coordination, including the persistence of stigmas related to special educational needs.

  Programa de formação docente: sugestões teóricas e práticas a serem utilizadas para melhorar as políticas e práticas educacionais voltadas para a inclusão nas escolas. · 2026 · DOI

• The study highlights the limitations in infrastructure, scarcity of adapted didactic resources, and fragilities in teacher training. The paper also notes the persistence of stigmas related to special educational needs.

  Programa de formação docente: sugestões teóricas e práticas a serem utilizadas para melhorar as políticas e práticas educacionais voltadas para a inclusão nas escolas. · 2026 · DOI

• The study was limited to inclusive primary schools in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania. The study had a relatively small sample size of 80 respondents. The study did not provide detailed information on the specific assistive devices and learning resources used by teachers.

  The Impact of Learning Environments on Teaching and Learning for Pupils with Hearing Impairment in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of conducive learning environments for pupils with hearing impairment in mainstream primary schools. The inadequacy of assistive devices and learning resources to support pupils with hearing impairment. The limited formal training in special needs education for teachers to effectively support pupils with hearing impairment.

  The Impact of Learning Environments on Teaching and Learning for Pupils with Hearing Impairment in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania · 2026 · DOI

• Inaccessible physical environments and transportation. The unavailability of assistive devices and technologies. Non-adapted means of communication. Gaps in service delivery. Discriminatory prejudice and stigma in society.

  Teachers’ Skills and Abilities Acquired from the Pedagogy of Students with Hearing Impairment in Tanzania · 2026 · DOI

• There is a need to invest in capacitating teachers in techniques for teaching students with special learning needs, particularly those with hearing impairment. A substantial number of people in Tanzania believe that children with disabilities are un-educatable and that teaching students with hearing impairment is a burden and tiresome work.

  Teachers’ Skills and Abilities Acquired from the Pedagogy of Students with Hearing Impairment in Tanzania · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Collaborative Teaching and Inclusion

• Inverting the Classroom: A Gateway to Creating an Inclusive Learning Environment · The Journal of Economic Education · 2000 · 1,745 citations
• Qualitative Studies in Special Education · Exceptional Children · 2005 · 1,312 citations
• Exploring inclusive pedagogy · British Educational Research Journal · 2010 · 855 citations
• The Quantitative Synthesis of Single-Subject Research · Remedial and Special Education · 1987 · 746 citations
• Making cooperative learning work · Theory Into Practice · 1999 · 693 citations
• Differentiating Instruction in Response to Student Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile in Academically Diverse Classrooms: A Review of Literature · journal for the education of the gifted · 2003 · 572 citations
• Measuring teacher efficacy to implement inclusive practices · Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs · 2011 · 533 citations
• Teacher Perceptions of Mainstreaming/Inclusion, 1958–1995: A Research Synthesis · Exceptional Children · 1996 · 526 citations
• Co-Teaching in Inclusive Classrooms: A Metasynthesis of Qualitative Research · Exceptional Children · 2007 · 518 citations
• Developing inclusive education systems: what are the levers for change? · Journal of Educational Change · 2005 · 500 citations

Most recent work

• Listening to Students with Learning Difficulties: Student Voice, Participation, and Recommendations for Inclusive Practice in Primary Education · Education Sciences · 2026
• Team teaching or solo teaching? Evidence from a crossover experiment on the effects of team teaching on student achievement · Teaching and Teacher Education · 2026
• Universal Design for Learning: Accessible and Inclusive Syllabi in MPA Introduction Courses · Journal of Public Affairs Education · 2026
• Breaking barriers or building walls? The impact of inclusive and segregated learning settings on learning development of students with special educational needs in Austria · International Journal of Developmental Disabilities · 2026
• Where Do the Didactic Efforts of Teachers Lead? When Grouping Replaces Differentiation · Improving Schools · 2026
• Needs Analysis for Designing and Developing a Traditional Games Application to Enhance Psychomotor and Cognitive Skills in Inclusive Elementary Education · Journal of Teaching and Learning · 2026
• Teacher Competency in Practicing Inclusive Education: A Systematic Review · Journal of Teaching and Learning · 2026
• From principles to practice: Universal design in higher education—A systematic review · Review of Education · 2026
• Evaluating institutional levers for promoting inclusive pedagogy in higher education · European Journal of Higher Education · 2026
• Inclusive Assessment in Highly Segregated School Systems – A Qualitative Research on German Language Core Curricula · European Journal of Educational Research · 2026

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