Open research questions in E-Government and Public Services

What the literature leaves open

• Additionally, the research is limited to the primary legal framework governing mukhtars, leaving aside sectoral regulations—such as those concerning social assistance, public health, disaster management, and education—that allocate additional responsibilities to mukhtars across different domains.

  Vanishing Representation in the Shadow of E-Government: A Comparative and Critical Analysis of Neighborhood Mukhtars in Turkey · 2026 · DOI

• information structures strongly influence user decision-making, suggesting that transparency should be understood not only as a legal requirement, but also as a practical mechanism for building confidence in digital systems (Křečková et al., 2025).The introduction of explainable AI (XAI) and open data initiatives is frequently cited as a means of enhancing accountability and public trust (Toledo, 2026). Nevertheless, a critical examination reveals this approach. Transparency alone may not be sufficient to ensure accountability, particularly when: citizens lack the technical expertise to interpret algorithmic processes; institutions fail to provide meaningful explanations; and transparency mechanisms are implemented superficially. Thus, transparency should not be viewed as an end in itself, but as part of a broader framework that includes institutional capacity, legal enforcement, and public engagement. Algorithmic risk is increasingly recognized as a key challenge in public administration. The literature identifies several types of risks, including discrimination, privacy violations, and systemic bias. Importantly, recent studies argue that these risks are not inherent to AI technologies but are the result of governance failures (Toledo, 2026). This perspective shifts the analytical focus from technology to institutions, emphasizing the role of regulatory frameworks and oversight mechanisms. Empirical cases, such as those documented in European contexts, demonstrate that even advanced digital administrations can produce harmful outcomes when governance structures are inadequate. This highlights the importance of integrating ethical and legal considerations into AI deployment. Comparative research provides valuable insights into how different governance models influence algorithmic outcomes. Similar comparative, indicator-based approaches have recently been applied in digitalization research, for example, in EUlevel analysis showing that digital entrepreneurial ecosystems can be examined through panel data and clustering techniques to identify differentiated country patterns and broader sustainability effects (Khatami et al., 2024). Studies show that variations in digital maturity, regulatory frameworks, and institutional capacity lead to different configurations of risks and benefits. For example, highly digitalized countries such as Estonia are often associated with effective governance models, while other contexts reveal tensions between innovation and accountability. However, the literature remains fragmented, with limited cross-country analyses integrating multiple variables simultaneously. This represents a significant gap, particularly in understanding how digitalization, AI adoption, transparency, and risk interact over time.

  Governing Algorithms: Transparency, Digitalization, and Risk in European Public Administration – A Comparative Study · 2026 · DOI

• This study demonstrates that government data governance significantly promotes firm upgrading through optimizing the public service environment and empowering firms’ digital governance capabilities. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the sample focuses on Chinese A-share listed firms, which may affect the representativeness of the results. Second, the analysis mainly captures short- and medium-term effects, while the long-term impact of data governance requires further examination. Third, issues such as data privacy, information security, and the digital divide were not explored in depth and deserve future attention. Finally, cross-country comparative studies could provide valuable insights into how different governance contexts influence the effectiveness of data governance in promoting firm upgrading. This research was funded by the National Social Science Fund General Project of China, grant number 25BGJ057, the Innovation Project of Guangxi Graduate Education of China, grant number YCBZ2024021, the National Statistical Science Research Major Project of China, grant number 2024LD003.

  Data-Driven Empowerment: How Government Data Governance Facilitates Firm Upgrading · 2026 · DOI

• Every recommendation is based on insights from the EGI dataset and ARIMA forecasting analysis, specifically highlighting the causal links between the barriers to digital transformation and the strategic responses that follow. Table 3 presents a framework that connects policy needs with the key aspects of GovTech implementation, offering practical guidance for countries at various levels of digital maturity. 14 Table 3.

  DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND GOVTECH: INSIGHTS FROM ARIMA MODELLING AND FORECAST ANALYSIS · 2026 · DOI

• The literature is still fragmented; empirical studies are often limited to the national level, and comparative and multi-actor analyses are needed (Liva et al. (2020). Studies on AI, algorithmic governance and ethics are insufficient. “AI-first governance” needs to be theorized (Balaji, 2025). Emerging trends—such as AI integration, blockchain expansion, and open data initiatives—signal GovTech’s evolving role (OECD, 2023). Policymakers must prioritize digital inclusion, robust security frameworks, and change management to maximize benefits. For Turkey, addressing regional disparities and scaling smart city initiatives could amplify impact (World Bank, 2022). This study offers some solid insights, but there are still plenty of research paths to explore: Bringing in External Factors: The models don’t take into account outside influences like political stability, public investment in AI, or changes in cybersecurity policies. By incorporating these elements into extended time-series models (like ARIMAX) could enhance understanding of causality and make findings more relevant for policymakers. Blending Methods with Qualitative Case Studies: It’s important to pair quantitative findings with qualitative insights, such as surveys on citizen satisfaction, evaluations of administrative capacity, or analyses of leadership. This is particularly vital for grasping situations where EGDI scores are high, yet the actual delivery of digital services falls short. Sensitivity to Disruptions Post-2024: Future studies should look into simulations that involve external shocks, like data breaches, incidents of algorithmic bias, or significant governance reforms. This would help us evaluate how resilient digital systems and GovTech strategies are over time. Exploring these avenues would not only tackle the limitations of this study but also enhance the theoretical and practical frameworks that will guide the next stage of global digital transformation. 15 REFERENCES Balaji, K. (2025). E-Government and E-Governance: Driving Digital Transformation in Public Administration. Public Governance Practices in the Age of AI, 23-44. https://doi. org/10.4018/979-8-3693-9286-7.ch002. Bates, J. (2012). This is what modern deregulation looks like: Co-optation and contestation in the shaping of the UK’s Open Government Data Initiative. The Journal of Community Informatics, 8(2), 1–20. Carter, L., & Belanger, F. (2005). The utilization of e-government services: Citizen trust, innovation and acceptance factors. Information Systems Journal, 15(1), 5–25. https://doi. org/10.1111/j.1365-2575.2005.00183.x. Cordella, A., & Tempini, N. (2015). E-government and organizational change: Reappraising the role of ICT in public sector reform. Government Information Quarterly, 32(3), 279–286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2015.06.002. Drèze, J., & Khera, R. (2017, August 10). The Aadhaar debate. The Indian Express.

  DIGITAL TRANSFORMATION AND GOVTECH: INSIGHTS FROM ARIMA MODELLING AND FORECAST ANALYSIS · 2026 · DOI

• Existing research on ICT-enabled coproduction has focused primarily on participation disparities, offering mixed evidence and often overlooking inequities in earlier and later stages of engagement.

  Equity in ICT-Based Coproduction: Evidence from San Francisco · 2026 · DOI

• However, regional governments face significant challenges in strategic planning due to the absence of empirical models linking historical SPBE performance to future Pemdi trajectories and a lack of data-driven guidance for prioritizing governance interventions.

  Classification, Prediction, and Prescription of Digital Government Governance Maturity Levels: Leveraging SPBE Index Data (2019–2024) for Evidence-Based Regional Digital Government Architecture Planning in Indonesia · 2026 · DOI

• The limitations of this study include: (1) the use of purposive sampling, which limits generalizability to all Indonesian regions; (2) reliance on self-reported survey data, which introduces potential response bias; (3) the cross-sectional design, which captures perceptions at a single point in time; and (4) the fact that the organizational framework model has not yet been empirically validated through longitudinal implementation assessment.

  ASN Perceptions and Organizational Framework Model of the Regional Research and Innovation Agency (BRIDA): A Study on Structuring and Formation Processes in Indonesia · 2026 · DOI

• One limitation is that the reported consequences of epis- temic vulnerabilities are based on interviews with only policymakers and experts. Interviews and observations from data gathering among the end-users, e.g. job seekers and people in vulnerable situations, would bring different insights and evidence of how they have experienced the changes and reforms studied. Acknowledgements We thank Jesse O’Reilly-Conlin from Scribendi (https:// www. scrib endi. com/) for editing a draft of this manuscript. The research for this article was funded by the Kone Foundation. Author contributions Sini Teräsahde, Anne Koski and Juho Rantala collected data. Sini Teräsahde performed the analysis. Paula Alanen contributed data and analysis. Jaana Parviainen developed theorical concepts and research design. Jaana Parviainen and Sini Teräsahde wrote the main manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript. Funding Open access funding provided by Tampere University (including Tampere University Hospital). Koneen Säätiö. Data availability No datasets were generated or analyzed during the current study.

  ‘This is a matter of life and death for efficiency’: the implications of datafication within public services for epistemic (in)justice · 2026 · DOI

• ICT include infrastructure, ensuring the system is different, and focusing on results that enhance transparency, reduce costs, and limit corruption. These initiatives are not only about modernising systems, but they also represent a fundamental change in how the state relates to its citizens (Ndiyun & Mukonza, 2025). expanding E-governance and e-government are similar concepts, but they differ slightly. Although the phrase e-government has commonly been used to describe how technology can enhance the delivery and accessibility of government services, e- in which governance has a broader vision technology is used to create a more empowered citizenry, promote participatory decision-making, and change administrative culture toward more accountable, service-oriented processes. The last, e-governance, is an effective instrument for imagining the future of public administration. It is not about the digitisation of the services but about a more transparent, accountable and citizen-focused governance model. An appropriate quote that captures the philosophy behind this transformation is: “Citizens First” (Udeaja et al., 2025).

  Analysis of the Legal Framework for e-Governance to Implement ICT Applications · 2026 · DOI

• National governments and public administration agencies across Southeast Asia may strengthen interoperability policies and inter-agency digital coordination systems to reduce fragmentation among public databases, licensing platforms, and administrative service portals. Development of unified standards for data exchange and digital coordination may improve administrative efficiency and reduce duplication across agencies. Public sector institutions may expand digital literacy and technical capability programs for both government personnel and citizens, particularly in rural and lower-capacity communities. Targeted training programs for local government units, frontline personnel, and marginalized populations may improve accessibility and long-term utilization of digital public services. Regulatory agencies and legislative institutions may strengthen legal frameworks related to cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, data privacy, and digital accountability. More consistent regulatory enforcement and updated governance policies may improve public trust and reduce uncertainty surrounding digital governance implementation. Regional organizations and development institutions may support collaborative digital governance initiatives across Southeast Asia through technical cooperation, comparative benchmarking programs, and regional knowledgesharing platforms. Stronger regional collaboration may generate more consistent governance standards and support lower-capacity states in digital transformation initiatives. Future researchers may conduct longitudinal and comparative studies that examine long-term governance outcomes, citizen trust formation, administrative adaptation, and institutional sustainability associated with digital governance reforms. Mixed-method and cross-country studies may also strengthen empirical understanding of how political systems, fiscal conditions, and governance capacity influence digital governance outcomes across Southeast Asia. Public administration scholars and policymakers may also expand evaluation frameworks beyond efficiency indicators to include equity, accessibility, transparency, public trust, and citizen experience. Broader governance evaluation criteria may provide stronger evidence for inclusive and accountable digital governance reform across the region. REFERENCES Abdou A. M. (2021). Good governance and COVID-19: The digital bureaucracy to response the pandemic (Singapore as a model). Journal of public affairs, 21(4), e2656. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2656 Ad’ha Aljunied, S. M. (2020). The securitization of cyberspace governance in Singapore. Asian Security, 16(3), 343- 362. https://doi.org/10.1080/14799855.2019.1687444 Ahad, M. P. Y., & Barsei, A. N. (2023). Collaborative governance sistem pemerintahan berbasis elektronik: Best practice dari pemerintah daerah di Indonesia: Collaborative governance in the implementation of electronic-based governance systems: Best practices from local governments in Eastern Indonesia. Jurnal Transformasi Administrasi, 13(01), 52–74. https://doi.org/10.56196/jta.v13i01.236 Aldhi, I. F., Suhariadi, F., Rahmawati, E., Supriharyanti, E., Hardaningtyas, D., Sugiarti, R., & Abbas, A. (2025). Bridging digital gaps in smart city governance: the mediating role of managerial digital readiness and the moderating role of digital leadership. Smart Cities, 8(4), 117. https://doi.org/10.3390/smartcities8040117 Allen, J. G., & Liao, Q. X. M. (2025). Digital economy innovation in the Indo-Pacific: Towards a ‘Singapore effect’?. The Journal of World Investment & Trade, 1(aop), 680–711. https://doi.org/10.1163/22119000-12340377 27 International Journal of Social Science Research and Policy Studies (INSORPS) Alamsyah, A., & Aryfiyanto, H. (2025). Leveraging Generative AI for Public Service Innovation: A Path to Smart 1-36. Indonesia.

  Applications of digital governance in public administration: A systematic review of Southeast Asian studies · 2026 · DOI

• INTRODUCTION Digital transformation is no longer understood as a sectoral technological agenda but as a national development priority (Díaz-Arancibia et al., 2024; Kaggwa et al., 2023; Syed et al., 2023). In the 2025–2029 RPJMN, digital transformation is affirmed as one of the national priorities, which includes strengthening digital infrastructure, public literacy, and developing a digital economy based on cutting-edge technology. This position is aligned with the National RPJP 2025–2045, which serves as a guideline for long-term national development. Thus, the digitalization of government and public services must be understood as part of the country’s development architecture, not merely a short-term administrative project (Ministry of National 5667 Development Planning/Bappenas, 2025; Republic of Indonesia, 2024; Republic of Indonesia, 2025). Within this framework, Indonesia’s One Data Policy serves as an institutional foundation to ensure that digital transformation does not stop at application digitization, but produces databased governance. Presidential Regulation Number 39 of 2019 emphasizes that One Data Indonesia is directed toward producing government data that are accurate, up-to-date, integrated, accountable, and easily accessible and shared between institutions through data standards, metadata, interoperability, reference codes, and master data. Nationally, the urgency of this policy is increasingly strong because the challenge of data-driven development lies precisely in fragmentation and weak integration across sectors, both at the central and regional levels (Ministry of National Development Planning/Bappenas, 2026; Republic of Indonesia, 2019). The implementation of One Data in South Sumatra is administratively based on Governor Regulation Number 4 of 2021 and Governor Decree Number 892/2021. Through this framework, SIMATA is transformed from a mere reporting platform into a governance instrument that integrates the production cycle, verification, and cross-sectoral data dissemination. This position places Diskominfo as an operational node in consolidating data work among OPDs to make it more standardized and coordinated (Governor of South Sumatra, 2021a, 2021b; South Sumatra Provincial Government, 2023). However, the effectiveness of SIMATA requires more than digital readiness alone. Based on the 2023 One Data Coordination Meeting, institutional strengthening, SOP development, and data synchronization between provinces and districts/cities are absolute prerequisites for valid planning and implementation. The crucial point lies in the consistency of OPDs in supplying up-to-date and interoperable data. This challenge aligns with the studies of Bernot et al.

  Public Innovation Governance in Regional Data Integration: An Analysis of the Simata Policy in South Sumatra · 2026 · DOI

• visualization helps to reinforce the argument that integrating AI into information systems of Jurnal Penelitian Sains Teknologi | p-ISSN: 1411-5174; e-ISSN: 2830-067X Vol. 2, No. 2, September 2026 | pp. 128-148 143 An AI-Driven Policy Intelligence Framework for Transforming National Data into Evidence … can significantly enhance the effectiveness of public policymaking.

  An AI-Driven Policy Intelligence Framework for Transforming National Data into Evidence-Based Public Policy · 2026 · DOI

• restricts to manage complex datasets and respond to rapidly changing socioeconomic dynamics. Consequently, there is a growing need to develop integrated information systems enhanced with intelligent analytics to support in governance. decision-making strategic c. National Data Governance and Evidence-Based Policy National data represent a strategic asset in supporting effective and targeted public policymaking. The concept of evidence-based policy emphasizes that policies should be grounded in valid empirical data to improve decision quality and reduce subjective bias. in practice, national data governance in many developing countries still faces significant challenges, including data However, fragmentation, limited interoperability, and inconsistent data quality. These issues hinder the optimal utilization of available data in decision-making processes. An et al highlight the importance of integrated data infrastructures to support research and datadriven decision-making more effectively. In Indonesia, these challenges are further compounded by the distribution of data across multiple institutions with differing standards, making cross-sectoral integration difficult. As a result, public policies are often not based on comprehensive data and tend to be reactive rather than proactive. This underscores the necessity of strengthening national data governance as a prerequisite for achieving evidence-based policymaking. d.

  An AI-Driven Policy Intelligence Framework for Transforming National Data into Evidence-Based Public Policy · 2026 · DOI

• the suboptimal adoption of Artificial Intelligence in terms of governmental systems, both infrastructure, regulatory frameworks, and human readiness. Consequently, public policies tend to be reactive rather than predictive and are not yet fully grounded in evidence.

  An AI-Driven Policy Intelligence Framework for Transforming National Data into Evidence-Based Public Policy · 2026 · DOI

• While the research demonstrates successful collaborative governance in Jembrana Regency, the scalability and transferability of the JSDDD model to other regencies with different institutional capacities and governance contexts remains unexplored.

  Collaborative Governance and New Public Service in Realizing a Single Source of Truth: Evidence from the SIPEDULI and JSDDD Programs in Jembrana Regency · 2026 · DOI

• Digital literacy and age-related technology adoption gaps in rural agricultural communities have been identified as barriers, but no targeted intervention framework exists for building digital capacity among older farmers in Ethiopian agricultural systems. Existing work notes generational differences in technology acceptance but does not address how to design inclusive digital platforms for mixed-age farming communities.

  Digital Transformation in Villages: Its Impact On Human Resource Management And Community Empowerment · 2024 · DOI

• So far, ministries, institutions and regional governments have implemented SPBE individually according to their capacity, and achieved levels of SPBE progress that vary widely nationally.

  Strategy for Improving the Government System Index Bekasi City Electronics Based · 2024 · DOI

• Originality/value This study filled the gap in literature by examining how e-government usage by Chinese citizens during the COVID-19 crisis helped influence their attitude and behavior.

  Does e-government help shape citizens' engagement during the COVID-19 crisis? A study of mediational effects of how citizens perceive the government · 2021 · DOI

• It can contribute to further study of the ICT's impact on the public administration decision-making processes, predicting the transformational impact of e-governance and theoretical advances empirical application by both public servants and those who hold political positions.

  THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF USING INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES IN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DECISION-MAKING PROCESSES · 2021 · DOI

• For tax purposes, the range of possible signatures has not been limited to a qualified electronic signature, a trusted signature, a personal signature, and possibly a simple identity verification mechanism using an account in an ICT system secured only with a password.

  Electronic Signature of the Taxpayer in Times of COVID-19 · 2021 · DOI

• A major problem for communities, on the one hand, is the lack of data to track their socio-economic development and, on the other hand, the opening of registers and access to data through the ESD, raise issues for communities about the methodology and tools for their prompt processing and interpretation.

  USE OF E-SOLUTIONS FOR PLANNING THE DEVELOPMENT OF AHs UNDER CONDITIONS OF DECENTRALIZATION OF AUTHORITY IN UKRAINE · 2019 · DOI

• Furthermore, the potential of open development to support positive social transformation has not yet materialized, particularly for marginalized populations (Bentley & Chib, 2016), partly because relatively little is known regarding how transformation is enacted in the field.

  Exploring capability and accountability outcomes of open development for the poor and marginalized: An analysis of select literature · 2018 · DOI

• The astounding progress in the area of information and communications technology that we have witnessed in the late 1990s and the present time has improved our understanding of the concepts for social sciences information in particular, but still there are large gaps in researchers' comprehension of a very rapidly growing market for development or social sciences information.

  On Information Analysis: A Supply and Demand Approach · 2009

• We propose a framework to encourage further investigation into ICT-led development projects which explicitly acknowledges the perspectives of: (i) the funding bodies, (ii) the organisations responsible for undertaking the intervention, and (iii) the to-be-affected community/ies, both dynamically and in context.

  Some perspectives on understanding the adoption and implementation of ICT interventions in developing countries · 2008 · DOI

Most-cited papers in E-Government and Public Services

• Implications of the use of artificial intelligence in public governance: A systematic literature review and a research agenda · Government Information Quarterly · 2021 · 571 citations
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• Citizens' trust in government as a function of good governance and government agency's provision of quality information on social media during COVID-19 · Government Information Quarterly · 2021 · 269 citations
• Digital transformation toward AI-augmented public administration: The perception of government employees and the willingness to use AI in government · Government Information Quarterly · 2021 · 236 citations
• Future of e-Government: An integrated conceptual framework · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · 2021 · 234 citations
• Know-how to lead digital transformation: The case of local governments · Government Information Quarterly · 2020 · 204 citations
• Testing the Development and Diffusion of E‐Government and E‐Democracy: A Global Perspective · Public Administration Review · 2011 · 198 citations
• Co-production in digital transformation of public administration and public value creation: The case of Denmark · Government Information Quarterly · 2021 · 187 citations
• The effects of e-government evaluation, trust and the digital divide in the levels of e-government use in European countries · Technological Forecasting and Social Change · 2020 · 178 citations
• Conceptualizing the ICT Artifact: Toward Understanding the Role of ICT in National Development · The Information Society · 2004 · 161 citations

Most recent work

• E-Government and Public Trust in Developing Countries: A Systematic Review and Research Agenda · International Journal of Public Administration · 2026
• Population and Civil Registration as the Spearhead of Inclusive and Effective Domestic Governance · Journal of Ethnic and Cultural Studies · 2026
• Making digital welfare work: conceptualizing digital compensatory work by frontline professionals · Journal of Professions and Organization · 2026
• Digitalization in Social Services: Assessment of Professionals’ Digital Competencies and Integration of ICTs · Human Services Organizations Management Leadership & Governance · 2026
• Conceptual Foundations and Practical Implications of EGovernment in Strengthening Institutional Governance: A Case Study of the Algerian Electricity and Gas Sector · Science Education and Innovations in the Context of Modern Problems · 2026
• Data-Driven Empowerment: How Government Data Governance Facilitates Firm Upgrading · Engineering Economics · 2026
• Digital adoption and infrastructure modernization in government public libraries in Bangladesh · Discover Education · 2026
• A Study on the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Administrative Actions and Processes · ASSAM Uluslararası Hakemli Dergi · 2026
• Integration of Website, RSS Feed, and Digital Signage to Support Public Information Relay Between Villages in Nusalaut District · International Journal Of Science Technology & Management · 2026
• Streamlining Governance: Digital Documentation and E-Government for Efficient Public Service Delivery · International Journal For Multidisciplinary Research · 2026

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