Open research questions in Gender Politics and Representation

What the literature leaves open

• Future research on this form of non-response might shed important light on the question, - Research on the extent to which these jobs are gendered in the popular imagination

  Gender-Role Traditionalism and Opposition to Trade in the United States · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in academic writing on the topic, which underexplores the extent to which blue-collar manufacturing jobs are gendered in the popular imagination. It notes that the relationship between gender conservatism and protectionism has not been fully examined. The study argues that understanding this relationship is important for understanding the dynamics of trade policy and its impact on society.

  Gender-Role Traditionalism and Opposition to Trade in the United States · 2026 · DOI

• While women politicians are known to engage in more consensual practices than men, it remains unclear whether these differences arise from women politicians having distinct preferences regarding inter-party conflicts.

  Are perceptions of inter-party conflict-gendered and do they shape political ambition among citizens and politicians? · 2026 · DOI

• Do female legislators exhibit more party discipline in autocratic regimes? How does party discipline affect the representation of women’s interests? Work has provided mixed evidence on women’s substantive representation in autocracies.

  Party Discipline and Women’s Substantive Representation in Autocracies · 2026 · DOI

• How do WMAs gauge and react to this situation of underachievement? More importantly, do they mobilize a critical state actor – their country’s gender equality machinery (GEM), if one exists – to address the deficiencies of the quota policy? Using primarily qualitative evidence (interviews, participatory observation, and document analysis) from a puzzling case, Brazil, the analysis uncovers underexplored aspects of quota underperformance.

  When Electoral Quotas for Women Go Awry: Mobilizing Women’s Movement’s Partnership with Gender Equality Machineries. Evidence from an Underperformer · 2026 · DOI

• Here, we attempt to bridge these contradictory findings and offer observational evidence of approximately 26,000 voters and 5,346 candidates in Australia, Canada, Britain, and the USA.

  Voter Sexism and Electoral Penalties for Women Candidates: Evidence from Four Democracies · 2025 · DOI

• Abstract How do citizens evaluate lesbian and gay (LG) party leaders? While recent scholarship has provided a window into how individuals evaluate openly gay legislative candidates, few studies have examined voter evaluations of LG individuals in executive positions, where voters may have different expectations of political leaders.

  A Rainbow Ceiling? Sexual Orientation and Party Leader Evaluations · 2025 · DOI

• Structural barriers limit women's advancements. Gender bias is a key challenge. Lack of mentorship and the opaque collegiums system are also challenges.

  A Study on Women’s Presence and Participation in Indian Judiciary · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the representation of women in the Indian Judiciary. The research highlights the need for more effective strategies to promote gender equality in judicial institutions.

  A Study on Women’s Presence and Participation in Indian Judiciary · 2026 · DOI

• The complexity of ideological orientations of women's organizations. The need for a comprehensive dataset on women's organizations. The challenge of analyzing the relationship between ideological fragmentation and women's empowerment.

  The FEMPOWER dataset: Mapping the fragmentation of women’s organizations worldwide · 2026 · DOI

• Investigation of how ideological fragmentation might influence movement effectiveness. Analysis of the relationship between ideological fragmentation and women's empowerment. Use of the dataset for case study selection, comparative qualitative research, and mixed-methods designs.

  The FEMPOWER dataset: Mapping the fragmentation of women’s organizations worldwide · 2026 · DOI

• While a considerable number of studies have documented the way the COVID-19 pandemic has accentuated gender inequalities, few studies have examined how elected representatives in democracies responded to these inequalities.

  A Window of Opportunity for Feminist Claims? MPs’ Responsiveness to Gender Inequalities in French-Speaking Belgium During COVID-19 · 2026 · DOI

• The underrepresentation of women in Nigeria's national parliament is a critical issue that requires attention. The study identifies a gap in the literature on the complex interplay between the supply and demand of female candidates in Nigeria's patriarchal society. The research highlights the need for a deeper understanding of the sociocultural, structural, institutional, and political barriers that constrain women's political participation.

  Women’s Parliamentary Representation in Nigeria: Evidence from the 2023 Elections · 2026 · DOI

• The return of democracy in Nigeria in 1999 gener- ated widespread optimism that groups historical- ly excluded from governance, particularly women, would gain equitable access to the political space. Yet, more than two decades later, women’s repre- sentation, especially within the legislature, remains remarkably low. This study has examined the mul- tifaceted barriers responsible for this persistent underrepresentation. These include party gate- keeping practices, patriarchal norms, cultural and religious constraints, stigmatization, godfatherism, political violence, financial exclusion, and the ab- sence of institutional mechanisms such as gen- der quotas or affirmative action. Collectively, these factors reinforce systemic bias and limit women’s political advancement. However, these challenges are not uniquely Nigerian; they reflect a broader continental pattern of structural exclusion. Across Africa, women face similar institutional and socio- cultural barriers in accessing political office. Yet, as demonstrated by countries such as Rwanda, Na- mibia, and South Africa, transformative progress is possible when political will, institutional design, and gender-responsive leadership converge. In these contexts, the introduction of quota laws, pro- portional representation systems, and deliberate state-backed inclusion policies has dramatically increased women’s presence in parliament. Nigeria’s position among the lowest-ranked Af- rican countries for women’s parliamentary rep- resentation underscores the urgency of reform. Drawing from successful regional examples, Ni- geria must institutionalize a legally enforceable gender quota, ideally reserving a minimum of 35 percent of legislative and appointive positions for women. Such a system would correct structural imbalance, ensure fairer nomination process- es, and normalize women’s visibility in political life. Beyond quotas, expanding women’s access to education, especially in rural areas, through OgunbOdede & Akinyetun (2026) Mujer AndinA. e040205universidAd AndinA del CusCO scholarships, mentorships, and leadership devel- opment programs would strengthen the pipeline of qualified female candidates. Equally, improving access to financial resources, including micro- credit schemes and targeted fundraising mech- anisms, would help women overcome one of the most persistent barriers to electoral participation. In addition, political parties must also assume a central role in advancing gender equity. Insti- tutionalizing internal party quotas for candidate selection, membership, and leadership positions would foster a more inclusive culture within the political system. Legal and institutional safeguards against political harassment and gender-based violence are also essential to ensure that women can participate safely and confidently in political processes. Furthermore, effective policy making requires reliable, gender-disaggregated data to moni- tor progress and inform interventions. A national framework for data collection and reporting on women’s political participation should be devel- oped to support evidence-based planning and track progress toward Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 5 on gender equality. Finally, creating an inclusive political environ- ment demands a coordinated effort among gov- ernment institutions, civil society organizations, political parties, and the broader society. Trans- formative change will depend on challenging deep-seated stereotypes, reforming exclusion- ary practices, and sustaining advocacy for gen- der equity as a democratic imperative. The ex- periences of Rwanda, Namibia, and South Africa demonstrate that women’s political inclusion is achievable, not an aspirational ideal but a prod- uct of deliberate and sustained state action. For Nigeria, such action is not merely desirable; it is indispensable to achieving a representative de- mocracy that reflects the voices and aspirations of all its citizens. Authors’ contributions: Nife Ogunbodede: conceptualization, data curation, metho- dology, writing: initial and final drafts. Tope Shola Akinyetun: data curation, analysis, writing: initial and final drafts.

  Women’s Parliamentary Representation in Nigeria: Evidence from the 2023 Elections · 2026 · DOI

• The gender team at USAID faced challenges in continuing their work due to the funding freeze. The shutdown of the portfolio affected the work on gender equality and women's empowerment. The team had to navigate the lack of guidance on implementing the DEIA executive order.

  USAID Bureau on Democracy, Human Rights, and Governance · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies a gap in understanding the impact of funding freezes on development programs. The shutdown of the portfolio highlights the need for protecting gender equality and women's empowerment work.

  USAID Bureau on Democracy, Human Rights, and Governance · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies a critical gap in the existing literature, particularly the near absence of studies from Eastern Indonesia and culturally conservative local governance contexts. The study notes that most empirical studies focus on national-level political figures in urbanized, well-resourced environments.

  The digital double bind: how social media amplifies gender paradoxes for women political leaders in patriarchal societies · 2026 · DOI

• Customary norms and patriarchal structures limit women's political representation. Women's roles are mostly confined to domestic and religious spheres, while public affairs, including politics, remain male domains.

  The role of habitus in gendering party: PDIP in Bali · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could explore the role of habitus in other political parties and contexts. The study's findings suggest the need for further research on the interaction between women's capital, habitus, and the political field in shaping gender-oriented practices.

  The role of habitus in gendering party: PDIP in Bali · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should investigate the factors that influence women's representation in politics. Future research should explore strategies to increase women's representation in politics. Future research should examine the relationship between gender equality and women's political representation in other contexts.

  Representasi dan Substansi: Analisis Kritis Keterlibatan Perempuan dalam Parlemen Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Barat · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap between the improvement of the Gender Inequality Index and the stagnation of women's representation in politics. The study identifies a lack of research on the relationship between gender equality and women's political representation at the local level.

  Representasi dan Substansi: Analisis Kritis Keterlibatan Perempuan dalam Parlemen Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Barat · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies a gap in existing research on women's empowerment, including the underdeveloped frameworks for analyzing its various dimensions. The study recognizes that prior work has debated and defined empowerment diversely, with researchers and proponents considering it a crucial aspect of development.

  Women Empowerment and Sustainable Development: Challenges, Opportunities, and Strategies · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of high-quality gender data. The difficulty in accessing administrative data. The need for a centralized databank on women's political participation.

  Mapping gender representation at Irish elections: Developing the Women for Election Data Hub · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of consistent and comparable data on women in cabinets. The impact of right-wing populism on women's representation in cabinets. The challenge of promoting gender parity in ministries.

  “You Feel That You Can Make a Difference in the World”: Contributions and Experiences of Women Cabinet Ministers from Five West African Countries · 2026 · DOI

• The article identifies a gap in understanding the effects of online misogyny on women local politicians. It highlights the need to explore the patriarchal structures of the political sphere and the experiences of women politicians.

  Sicherung politischer Teilhabe im Kontext von Online-Misogynie – Einblicke in die emischen Perspektiven von Kommunalpolitikerinnen in Deutschland · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Gender Politics and Representation

• Resources, Agency, Achievements: Reflections on the Measurement of Women's Empowerment · Development and Change · 1999 · 3,382 citations
• Gender and the Social Rights of Citizenship: The Comparative Analysis of Gender Relations and Welfare States · American Sociological Review · 1993 · 1,265 citations
• Gender As a Social Structure · Gender & Society · 2004 · 1,060 citations
• Status incongruity and backlash effects: Defending the gender hierarchy motivates prejudice against female leaders · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · 2011 · 872 citations
• Gender Ideology: Components, Predictors, and Consequences · Annual Review of Sociology · 2009 · 818 citations
• Undoing Gender · Gender & Society · 2007 · 810 citations
• Mobilization without Emancipation? Women's Interests, the State, and Revolution in Nicaragua · Feminist Studies · 1985 · 699 citations
• Feminist Attitudes and Support for Gender Equality: Opinion Change in Women and Men, 1974-1998 · Social Forces · 2004 · 660 citations
• Are women really the “fairer” sex? Corruption and women in government · Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization · 2001 · 655 citations
• Gender planning in the third world: Meeting practical and strategic gender needs · World Development · 1989 · 636 citations

Most recent work

• Sociological Science · Sociological Science · 2026
• Analysing legislatures using a feminist institutionalist lens · European Journal of Politics and Gender · 2026
• “A mother is a mother, and a father is a father.” (Anti-)gender at play in the 2024 Romanian elections · Women s Studies International Forum · 2026
• The whiteness of ‘sex discrimination’: theorising white feminist ideology in politics · European Journal of Politics and Gender · 2026
• More social, less material, more influenced by family ties: Why young women join political parties · European Journal of Political Research · 2026
• United States Ambassador-at-Large for Global Women’s Issues · Politics & Gender · 2026
• Troubling gender in international development · Third World Quarterly · 2026
• Gendered Political Violence in Transitional Moments: The Cases of Bangladesh and Iran · Politics & Gender · 2026
• Women and Left-Wing Citizens Prefer Women Candidates: Testing Consistency and Psychological Processes Across Twenty Diverse Countries · Public Opinion Quarterly · 2026
• Silenced Voices: How Violence Marginalizes Women and Immigrant Politicians in Policy Debates · British Journal of Political Science · 2026

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