Open research questions in Gender Roles and Identity Studies

What the literature leaves open

• The role of teachers' demographic and occupational factors in shaping their perceptions of inclusive practices remains an under-examined issue. There is a lack of research on elementary school teachers' perceptions of inclusive practices. The study aims to address this gap by exploring the contributing role of demographic and occupational characteristics in shaping teachers' perceptions.

  A Preliminary Examination of Elementary and Secondary School Teachers’ Perceptions of the Educational Inclusion of Students’ Gender and Sexuality Diversity: Demographic and Occupational Differences · 2026 · DOI

• Although previous studies have tested the effects of paternal involvement on teenage children, the process of internalization of gender norms and roles in early childhood has not yet been investigated.

  Paternal involvement and children's internalization of gender roles in early childhood · 2024 · DOI

• Yet, little is known about associations of MGE with the diagnosis and treatment of modifiable cardiovascular disease (CVD) risks.

  Male Gender Expressivity and Diagnosis and Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease Risks in Men · 2024 · DOI

• From the evidence cited in this review, it is clear that Black men are facing times of extreme hardship. Furthermore, this trend is likely to continue for the foreseeable future. As such, the marshaling of societal change agents and the modification of personal behaviors is a mandate that can no longer be ignored. In this spirit, we propose the following recommendations. 1. School counselors should provide more educational sem- inars on parenting for Black parents. Many Black parents are unaware of the developmental stages that children experience and may not know how to respond to their male children. Par- enting seminars could provide opportunities for Black parents to acquire useful skills that they can use to raise their male children. These seminars also would bring parents and coun- selors together in a cooperative effort to help improve the growth and development of Black men. Because of the underrepresentation of Blacks in counseling and other helping professions, those providing services to Blacks will probably be predominantly White for some time to come. Because White counselors often lack both sufficient knowledge of dilemmas facing Black men and strategies that can be effective in working with this population, these counselors should be provided with educational training seminars to help them in supplementing their existing knowledge bases. Professional counseling associations (e.g., the American Association for Counseling and Development [AACD]) can be particularly help- ful in this regard. 2. School counselors (especially those at the secondary lev- el) should organize and lead counseling groups that help Black men develop more positive self-concepts. Such groups could help Black men gain more confidence in their abilities and talents. Various male leaders in the Black community could be asked to participate in these group experiences and to serve as role models. 3. School counselors should help Black male children set career goals or at least explore career options early in their educational experiences. Selecting career goals can help these children understand the value of education. Career goals also can help them select the necessary work experiences to pre- pare them for specific careers. School counselors could struc- ture activities and experiences that help these children become aware of various careers and motivate them to explore many career options. 4. The high rates of homocide, drug and alcohol abuse, and suicide among young Black men suggest that there may be a crisis in values among Black male children. As such, mental health counselors should develop and implement more outreach programs and services in cooperation with churches and other organizations in the Black community. These programs and ser- vices could include individual counseling, topical group dis- cussions on relevant social issues (e.g., drugs, teenage preg- nancy), and seminars on careers of the future. Using Afrocentric paradigms and con

  Black Men, An Endangered Species: Who's Really Pulling the Trigger? · 1987 · DOI

• Although the findings reported by Marcus and Overton (1978) of a correlation between gender constancy and other measures of conservation suggest that at least the perceptual measure is related to other types of cognitive competence, future research is needed to validate existing gender-constancy measures.

  Development of gender role knowledge and gender constancy · 1987 · DOI

• Further work is needed to determine what type of instruction at encoding would be most effective in reducing gender-schematic process- ing, and whether such instruction would have long-term benefits. First, the individual differences in gender-schematic processing described in this chapter need to be replicated using different tasks.

  Gender schemata: Individual differences and context effects · 1987 · DOI

• There is still a great deal to be learned about male-female work relationships. For example, too little is known about the process of Downloaded by [Florida State University] at 07:28 25 October 2017 106 COMMUNICATION REVIEWS AND COMMENTARIES development and deterioration of relationships within organizations, specifically as this applies to informal network and mentor relationships. With more women moving into management and other positions of authority, work by Kanter (1977a, 1977b) and supporting work by Brass (1985) on sex ratios suggest that sex will make less and less of a difference to friendship and formation of alliances. Only future empirical work, especially on the topics of exclusion identified by Kanter, will tell. One of the criticisms of Kanter's work was that her sample of tokens was young, politically unaware, and without personal bases of power (Fairhurst & Snavely, 1983a). How well do politically wise tokens and tokens with other sources of power fare in the informal network? How do males and females manipulate the informal network in order to define issues, reach con sensus and allocate resources? Research has yet to be done in these areas. In the area of mentoring, more work on overcoming obstacles within developing cross-gender relationships is needed. For example, because of the closeness of the mentor relationship, the cross-gender relationship poses some special problems due to the possibility of sexual relations. Sheehy (1976) calls for an increased level of maturity on the part of the mentor. Whether this is obtained and how sexual tensions may be negotiated to keep the relationship on a professional basis needs addressing. Finally, a formalized mentoring program did not fare well among managers in Boster et a1.'s (1984) study, but the possibility of cross-gender relationships was not explored. Research is needed to explore whether or not such structured relationship development can work for the nontraditionally employed of both sexes. In addition to the fact that too little longitudinal work is done, the literature on mentoring and informal alliances could benefit from the burgeoning literature on the development and deterioration of relation ships within the fields of communication and social psychology, in terms of both the questions being asked and the methods that are used (for example, Ayres, 1979, 1982; Baxter, 1982; Baxter & Wilmot, 1983; Rawlins, 1983a, 1983b). Moreover, the study of these organizational relationships could benefit the general relationship literature as well, which relies too heavily on college student samples. In the area of role conflict we have already acknowledged that Kanter provides excellent insight into how the women in her sample acquiesced to stereotyping, and her work is reflective of much of the literature in this regard. Although there is a popular literature urging men and women to create "new partnerships" (Berryman-Fink, 1983; Colwill, 1982), com paratively little is kn

  Male-Female Communication on the Job: Literature Review and Commentary · 1986 · DOI

• Future research should address the predictive va lidity of affective responses and RPEs on compliance to exercise behaviors and should investigate in detail the construct validity of the Feeling Scale.

  Sex-Role Orientation and the Responses of Men to Exercise Stress · 1987 · DOI

• Perhaps I am too procedurally oriented or simply a stick in the mud, but I tend to be wary of claims to "move beyond" conceptual systems, espe- cially when those systems, be they scientific of hu- manistic, are so poorly understood.

  Perspectives on Women, Caring and Knowing: Issues for an Educational Agenda · 1987 · DOI

• The study only examined the experiences of UK-based parents. The sample size was limited, with only one person of Pakistani heritage. The study did not explore the experiences of non-parents or individuals from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds.

  RCC Perspectives, Vol. 4 (2017): Men and Nature: Hegemonic Masculinities and Environmental Change · 2026 · DOI

• There is a lack of research on the role of men and masculinities in environmental activism. The study identifies a gap in the literature on the emotional and relational aspects of environmental activism. The paper highlights the need for more research on the intersections between environmentalism, masculinity, and parenthood.

  RCC Perspectives, Vol. 4 (2017): Men and Nature: Hegemonic Masculinities and Environmental Change · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could address these gaps through multi-sited, class-diverse, and longitudinal studies, and explore how 117 MCS – Masculinities & Social Change, 15(2) gay men negotiate sonhood alongside fatherhood, how rural migrants compare with local men, and how digital communities reshape filial expectations.

  Reconfiguring Masculinity and Sonhood among Gay Migrants in Urban China · 2026 · DOI

• The study highlights the challenge of promoting alternative models of masculinity in the entrepreneurial ecosystem. The research also notes the challenge of addressing the gap in research on men as entrepreneurs.

  Masculinities in Entrepreneurship: Reproducing Inequalities and Seeking Alternatives · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies a gap in research on men as entrepreneurs, highlighting the need to examine how masculinity shapes entrepreneurial practices, identities, and forms of legitimacy. The study also notes that most research on gender and entrepreneurship has focused on women entrepreneurs, while men have remained an implicit and largely unexamined category.

  Masculinities in Entrepreneurship: Reproducing Inequalities and Seeking Alternatives · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could explore the ways in which Chinese gay men's desires and identities are shaped by cultural and social context. Future research could examine the role of technology and social media in shaping gay men's desires and identities. Future research could investigate the implications of the paper's findings for the development of more effective support services for LGBTQ+ individuals in China.

  When Heteropatriarchy Turns You On: Masculinity, Masochism, and the Erotics of Normativity · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies a gap in our understanding of the complexities of Chinese gay men's desires and identities. The paper highlights the need for more nuanced and culturally sensitive approaches to supporting LGBTQ+ individuals in China.

  When Heteropatriarchy Turns You On: Masculinity, Masochism, and the Erotics of Normativity · 2026 · DOI

• There is a lack of understanding of the impact of traditional masculinity on men's willingness to seek help. There is a need for strategies to motivate men to initiate and benefit from psychological treatments.

  Perspectives on Eliminating Barriers and Fostering Solutions to Men’s Participation and Engagement in Mental Health Services · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a research gap in the current literature on Polish migrants in the Nordic countries, particularly in terms of the complexity of positionalities of migrants. The study highlights the need to include sexuality and gender identities as an important category of analysis. The study suggests that further research needs to explore the experiences of LGBTQI+ migrants from Poland.

  Changing Gender Norms among Polish Migrants in the Nordic Countries: A Scoping Review Analysis · 2026 · DOI

• The paper suggests that future research should explore the ways in which educators and policymakers can engage in dialogue with young adults, fostering critical thinking and citizenship construction. The paper recommends that future research should investigate the factors influencing citizenship construction, including school, family, and the public arena.

  (Re)Constructing femininities and masculinities · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies a gap in the literature, highlighting the need for a deeper understanding of young adults' citizenship construction. The paper notes that existing research has focused on the role of school and family in shaping citizenship, but has neglected the importance of dialogue and critical thinking.

  (Re)Constructing femininities and masculinities · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a gap in the literature on the use of photographs in research on gender and sexual orientation. The paper highlights the need for further research on the impact of discourse on gender and sexual orientation.

  „Faggi, tappi, lessa, feit eða heit“ Orðtíðni framhaldsskólanema um staðalmyndir kynhneigðar og kyngervis · 2026 · DOI

• Limited professional development. Weak monitoring mechanisms. Leadership constraints. Sociocultural resistance, particularly regarding gender diversity and LGBTQ+ inclusion.

  A Meta-synthesis in Gender Mainstreaming and Promoting Gender-Responsive Teaching and School Culture in Basic Education · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should investigate the impact of gender mainstreaming on student outcomes. Future research should explore the role of leadership and institutional accountability in promoting gender-responsive education. Future research should examine the effectiveness of contextualized training and participatory monitoring in strengthening gender mainstreaming.

  A Meta-synthesis in Gender Mainstreaming and Promoting Gender-Responsive Teaching and School Culture in Basic Education · 2026 · DOI

• The study suggests that future research should explore the implications of feminization on the teaching profession and the education system as a whole. It also recommends further research on the potential consequences of feminization on gender diversity and equality in the workforce.

  Feminization of Primary Education: Gendered Structures, Occupational Dynamics, and Socio-Cultural Implications · 2026 · DOI

• The study identifies a research gap in the understanding of the feminization of primary education as a complex phenomenon shaped by structural inequalities, cultural values, and institutional developments. It highlights the need for further research on the implications of feminization on the teaching profession and the education system as a whole.

  Feminization of Primary Education: Gendered Structures, Occupational Dynamics, and Socio-Cultural Implications · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Gender Roles and Identity Studies

• Doing Gender · Gender & Society · 1987 · 8,280 citations
• Hegemonic Masculinity · Gender & Society · 2005 · 7,024 citations
• The measurement of psychological androgyny. · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · 1974 · 5,929 citations
• The Ambivalent Sexism Inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · 1996 · 3,062 citations
• Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and health · Social Science & Medicine · 2000 · 2,887 citations
• Gender differences in risk taking: A meta-analysis. · Psychological Bulletin · 1999 · 2,693 citations
• Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance · Journal of Experimental Social Psychology · 1999 · 2,222 citations
• Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: Robust and surprising findings. · Journal of Personality and Social Psychology · 2001 · 2,049 citations
• The gender similarities hypothesis. · American Psychologist · 2005 · 2,020 citations
• Men, masculinity, and the contexts of help seeking. · American Psychologist · 2003 · 1,940 citations

Most recent work

• RCC Perspectives, Vol. 4 (2017): Men and Nature: Hegemonic Masculinities and Environmental Change · Research Explorer (The University of Manchester) · 2026
• Discovering Legacies: Fathers, Sons, Masculinities, and Equity Within Families · Journal of Family Theory & Review · 2026
• Masculinity Norms and Their Economic Implications · Annual Review of Economics · 2026
• Falling in line: Children’s gender conformity after feedback signaling gender atypicality. · Developmental Psychology · 2026
• Making, Unmaking and Remaking Masculinity Through Leisure · Leisure Sciences · 2026
• The Power of Peers: Children’s Gender-Based Peer Interactions and Cognitions Contribute to Changes in Felt Gender Similarity Over Time · Sex Roles · 2026
• Determinants of male healthcare utilization in Switzerland: does gender identity and migration background matter? · BMC Health Services Research · 2026
• Balancing and Exploring the Personal, Professional, and Political: Finding Space and Place in the Academy Through Reflexive and Intersecting Masculinities · Journal of Family Theory & Review · 2026
• Are We Willing to Change? A Feminist Agenda for the Study of Men in Families · Journal of Family Theory & Review · 2026
• Marginalized and Protest Masculinities: Conceptualizing Racism for Black Men in Families · Journal of Family Theory & Review · 2026

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