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Open research questions in Global Educational Reforms and Inequalities

73 unresolved questions extracted from the limitations and future-work sections of 3,739 Global Educational Reforms and Inequalities papers in our library. Each links back to the study that raised it.

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  • / İnönü University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 2026; 27(1), 192-212 Ethics Committee Approval: As this study was conducted using a document analysis method, no data were collected directly from human participants; therefore, ethics committee approval was not required.

    A Cross-National Comparison of Nomination Criteria for Gifted Individuals: A PRISMA-Based Systematic Review · 2026 · DOI

  • 199 Bağrıaçık et al. / İnönü University Journal of the Faculty of Education 2026; 27(1), 192-212 2.7. Data Analysis Process The data analysis process was carried out in a three-stage structure: 2.7.1. Content Analysis The included studies were systematically analyzed based on their data content related to the nomination processes of gifted individuals (James W. Drisko & Tina Maschi, 2016). In each study, key data regarding the identification process (e.g., criteria, actors, governance structure) were identified, and common themes were derived. 2.7.2. Categorical Coding The documents obtained in the study were systematically analyzed using content analysis, and thematic patterns related to identification processes were identified. In this context, an inductive analysis approach was adopted during data analysis, and common identification criteria were derived from the content (James W. Drisko & Tina Maschi, 2016). At the end of the coding process, 13 main nomination criteria were defined as categorical themes. Each criterion was derived from the practices used in the initial identification processes of gifted individuals across different countries. To ensure the objectivity and scientific reliability of the coding process, the data were analyzed by two independent researchers. Inter-coder reliability was calculated using the formula proposed by Matthew B. Miles and A. Michael Huberman (1994) Agreement/(Agreement+Disagreement), and an agreement rate of .92 was achieved between the researchers. In addition, the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Checklist was employed to assess the methodological quality of the 53 studies included in the systematic review. Within this process, studies were evaluated based on criteria such as sample adequacy, the validity of data collection instruments, and the consistency of findings with the research questions. Only those studies considered to be of “high methodological quality” were included in the final analysis. The themes identified through this process are presented below. 1. Teacher Nomination: Nomination of the student based on the teacher’s observations. 2.Parent Input/Nomination: Nomination based on the family’s individual evaluations. 3.Achievement Test Scores: Consideration of scores from reading, mathematics, or general academic tests. 4.Intelligence Test Scores: Evaluation of scores obtained from standardized intelligence tests. 5.Portfolio Assessment: Evaluation of documents and products reflecting the student’s work. 6.Academic Achievement: Report card grades or performance indicators throughout the educational process. 7.Psychologist/Psychiatrist Diagnosis: Referral based on clinical reports from expert evaluations. 8.Cognitive Tests: Assessments related to cognitive domains such as memory, attention, and processing speed. 9.Self-Nomination: The student’s voluntary application to the identification process. 10.Peer Nomination: Nomination of a student by their peers. 11.Out-of-School Achievements: Non-formal accomplishments such as in arts, sports, or scientific competitions. 12.Creativity Test Scores: Scores obtained from widely accepted creativity assessments such as the Torrance Tests. 13.No Standard Procedure: This category refers to contexts where there is no structured, mandatory, and centralized nomination system at the national level. In such cases, the nomination process is typically left to the discretion of local authorities, school administrations, or individual teachers rather than being governed by a centralized policy. These codes constituted the primary framework for tabulation and thematic comparisons in the comparative analysis phase of the study. Findings for each country were structured based on these categories. 200 Bağrıaçık et al. / İnönü University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 2026; 27(1), 192-212 2.7.3. Comparative Analysis Kodlanan veriler, ülkeler arası benzerlik ve farklılıkları belirlemek amacıyla karşılaştırmalı analiz tekniğiyle değerlendirilmiştir. Analizler; tanılama süreci yapısı, uygulayıcı aktörler (öğretmen, psikolog, yönetici), kullanılan ölçütler ve merkezi/yerel yönetim yaklaşımlarına göre sınıflandırılmıştır (Roig-Tierno et al., 2017).

    A Cross-National Comparison of Nomination Criteria for Gifted Individuals: A PRISMA-Based Systematic Review · 2026 · DOI

  • Based on the challenges identified in this study, the following recommendations are proposed for institutional leaders and key stakeholders within the TVET colleges. i. ii. iii. iv. v. Strengthen lecturer development and accountability frameworks: The Department of Higher Education and Training should prioritise sustained professional development for TVET lecturers, with a specific focus on pedagogical training for vocational education contexts. Institutional performance management systems should be strengthened to ensure consistent monitoring of teaching responsibilities, while also providing developmental support rather than purely punitive oversight. Particular attention should be given to rural colleges where staff recruitment and retention challenges are more pronounced. Review Language Practices in TVET Teaching and Learning: TVET colleges should be supported to implement context- responsive language practices that enhance epistemic access for students whose primary language is not English. This may include the strategic use of multilingual glossaries, bilingual instructional support, and staff development initiatives focused on language-sensitive pedagogy. Such interventions align with national language policy commitments and may contribute to improved engagement in technical programmes. Align Admission Practices with Academic Support Mechanisms: Admission criteria for technically demanding programmes should be reviewed in conjunction with the availability of foundational and bridging support. Where access is widened, structured academic support mechanisms should be institutionalised to support students with limited prior exposure to mathematics and physical science. This approach balances equity objectives with realistic pathways to programme completion. Enhance Student Support and Institutional Capacity in Rural Colleges: The provision of integrated academic, psychosocial, and administrative support should be strengthened, particularly in rural TVET colleges serving vulnerable student populations. Improved coordination between colleges, NSFAS, and student housing providers may help mitigate disruptions associated with funding delays and accommodation shortages. Institutional capacity-building initiatives should recognise the additional burdens faced by rural colleges. Enhance Governance and Oversight within the TVET College: Clearer lines of accountability are needed between national policy frameworks and institutional implementation. Regular and transparent reporting on teaching, staffing, and student support should be prioritized, alongside strengthened oversight by regulatory bodies. Improved governance practices are essential for restoring confidence in the TVET college as a credible post-school pathway.

    Structural and pedagogical challenges in South African rural TVET colleges: A case of the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces · 2026 · DOI

  • Further empirical research involving primary data collection is recommended to complement the desktop findings presented in this study. In-depth qualitative research with students, lecturers, and college management would offer valuable insights into lived experiences within rural TVET colleges. Comparative studies across rural and urban institutions may also enhance understanding of contextual differences within the college.

    Structural and pedagogical challenges in South African rural TVET colleges: A case of the Eastern Cape, KwaZulu-Natal and Limpopo provinces · 2026 · DOI

  • This systematic review provides valuable insights into the factors contributing to the strong performance of East Asian education systems in international assessments. However, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, the review is based on 30 studies that met the predefined inclusion criteria, which may not fully represent the entire body of research on high-performing education systems. Although the PRISMA approach ensured a systematic and transparent selection process, relevant studies published outside the chosen databases or in languages other than English may have been overlooked. Second, the studies reviewed utilized various research designs and methodologies, including qualitative analyses, comparative policy studies, and quantitative evaluations of international assessment data. While the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) helped assess the methodological quality across these diverse studies, differences in research design may have influenced how the findings were interpreted and integrated. Third, most existing literature focuses on well-known high-performing systems such as Singapore and Hong Kong, with fewer detailed studies on Taiwan and Macao. Consequently, the evidence base may be somewhat uneven across the education systems examined in this review. Fourth, the review primarily relied on secondary analyses of international assessment data and policy studies, which may not fully capture classroom-level practices across all schools within these systems. Education systems are complex, and practices can vary among schools, teachers, and local contexts. Finally, while the review identifies several factors associated with high performance, it is important to understand that educational outcomes arise from intricate interactions among cultural, institutional, and socioeconomic factors. Thus, the findings should not suggest that policies from high-performing systems can be directly implemented in other contexts without careful adaptation. Despite these limitations, the systematic synthesis of evidence from multiple studies offers a comprehensive overview of the structural, instructional, and cultural factors that contribute to the strong performance of East Asian education systems in international mathematics assessments.

    Why Do East Asian Education Systems Excel in International Mathematics Assessments? A Systematic Review of Evidence from Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Macao · 2026 · DOI

  • The study recommends the government prioritize prompt disbursement of funds allocated to schools to prevent principals from diverting the costs to students/parents, the principals to source school uniforms from well-wishers and sponsors to ease the cost obligation on parents and thus improve student transition and finally, a similar study should be replicated in private boarding secondary schools…

    A Correlation between Hidden Educational Costs and Students’ Transition Rate in Public Boarding Secondary Schools in Kenya · 2024 · DOI

  • Tuition has long been known to exist but has not been adequately analysed, and the attention it received due to major political changes following the 2015 general elections is the backdrop to this book.

    Book review: Shadow education in Myanmar: private supplementary tutoring and its policy implications · 2023 · DOI

  • To fully understand the particularity and universality of the policy of the Strong Base Plan, make it coordinate with other higher education enrollment policies, and jointly act on the selection and training of outstanding talents, is the key and difficult point of current research, and needs to be further explored.

    Understanding “Strong Base Plan” (“Strong Base”) in China: Policy Interpretation Perspective · 2023 · DOI

  • The challenges which were mentioned include: lack of fiscal infrastructure, lack of guidelines for the implementation of the curriculum, insufficient funds, overcrowded classrooms, heavy workloads, teachers’ lack of commitment, complexity of managing curriculum, and school heads’ inability to supervise curriculum delivery.

    Administrative Challenges Preventing Effective Curriculum Implementation in Public Secondary Schools in Nyamagana District - Mwanza City, Tanzania · 2022 · DOI

  • We conclude by raising ethical and accountability concerns about the RSAS, which lacks evidence of attendance improvement, and which potentially causes harm to its objects: First Nations students.

    The Remote School Attendance Strategy (RSAS): Why invest in a strategy that reduces attendance? · 2022 · DOI

  • Despite some remarkable results in PISA’s global ranking tables from China’s Eastern provinces, China’s distinctive policy response has not been well documented or understood.

    Understanding China’s policy responses to PISA: using a <i>ti</i> and <i>yong</i> framework · 2022 · DOI

  • Prior research on the relationship between International Baccalaureate Diploma Program (IBDP) scores and the university entrance exam scores is limited and varied to a great extent due to the conflicting results in the literature.

    Relationship Between Achievement Performances of University Entrance Examination and International Baccalaureate Diploma Program: A Case From Turkey · 2021 · DOI

  • Using data from all participating schools (N=308) one question is raised: How successful was the international partnership in implementing education reform? This three-part inquiry critiques STRIVE from policy implementation and international partnerships perspectives generating mixed results.

    International aid and education reform and the paradox of implementation: Case study of the Philippines · 2015 · DOI

  • During the higher education implemented comprehensive charge and the scale of higher education expanded,some problems,for example,the pressure of education expenses spent by the local government growing drastically,cost burden of personal bias high,student funding for education is insufficient,and colleges and universities are running with a loan,are appeared in the China's Western Region where per capita GDP and per capita financial revenue is situated on 1/3 later of the whole country.

    Problems andImprovement of Higher Education Cost Sharing in the China's Western Region · 2010

  • One national survey examined attitudes toward admission procedures and selection standards, but the subtleties involved in decision-making were not explored (Bowman, 1988).

    Patterns in MPA Admission Decision-Making: An Application of Social Judgment Theory · 1993

  • It is hardly the time to abandon such safeguards when expenditure on education It remains to be seen what form the proposed larger authorities might take. " The Royal Commission on Local Government in England have received as evidence a report on the administration of the County Borough of Brimingharrp-l, and of the Inner London Education A u t h o r i t y ^; it remains to be seen how procedures and indeed attitudes appropriate to large city areas could be adapted to the needs of rural areas, which tend to consist of small communities each with its own sense of identity. Moreover, the Education Committee itself, if limited to a maximum of fifteen members, would have little room for the ' c o - o p t e d' representative members whose varied background is often of such value to education committees under existing arrangements.

    THE SIZE, EFFICIENCY AND EFFECTIVENESS OF LOCAL EDUCATION AUTHORITIES · 1969 · DOI

  • Finally, future research should explore mediating and moderating variables that may shape the RAO–achievement relationship.

    Resource Allocation Optimization and Academic Performance of Mathematics Students in Philippine State Universities: A Narrative Literature Review · 2026 · DOI

  • The process of converting grades for students transferring from overseas schools to Indonesian educational institutions currently operates without standardized instruments at the national level.

    The Risk of Academic Inequity in the Assessment of International Transfer Students Grade Conversions In Indonesia · 2026 · DOI

  • Although it has been well-noted that high-stakes tests can intensify washback effects and contextual factors can mediate the manifestation of these effects, how these effects are influenced by policy-driven variables remains underexplored.

    Sustainability of washback effects: a longitudinal study of China’s twice-yearly NMET reform · 2025 · DOI

  • However, little is known about the horizontal dimension of educational stratification in China, specifically the unequal distribution of undergraduate majors among students.

    Following the Family’s Path: The Influence of Family Background on Undergraduate Choosing Marketing Majors · 2025 · DOI

  • However, one of the areas that remain unexplored is the introduction of a broadening General Education among all eight publicly funded universities in the additional year of the four-year undergraduate education.

    Navigating the policy borrowing process of general education among the eight publicly funded universities in Hong Kong · 2023 · DOI

  • Abstract Scholarly debate on the role of various contributing factors in cadre promotion yields conflicting evidence for different administrative levels in China, yet rarely has any quantitative evidence been presented for below the county level.

    Loyalty and Competence: The Political Selection of Local Cadres in China · 2022 · DOI

  • Due to the limitation of social economic conditions, the teaching effect of science in rural elementary schools remains unsatisfactory and poorly studied.

    Research on the Integration of STEM Education into the Rural Elementary School Science Curriculum: An Example from Rural Elementary Schools in Western China · 2020 · DOI

  • The article suggests that China has made tremendous contributions on closing the rural and urban gaps in recent years, but challenges remain to be solved.

    Compulsory Educational Policies in Rural China since 1978: A Macro Perspective · 2020 · DOI

  • Our findings add to the limited literature base on the topic—they reveal schools discontinued the program due to challenges from various systems-level constraints, leadership issues, school organizational structures, and individual teacher challenges.

    Letting Go of the Middle Years Programme: Three Schools’ Rationales for Discontinuing an International Baccalaureate Program · 2019 · DOI

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