Open research questions in Retirement, Disability, and Employment

What the literature leaves open

• Future research should focus on the intersectional experiences of women and focus on the life- course accumulations of women’s needs in the workforce and the factors that can support women as they age in work, particularly with advances in technology. First, that the sample was limited to the Northwest of England and may not be trans- ferable to some roles, e.

  “You lose confidence in yourself, I think, a little bit…” A qualitative study exploring the perceptions and experiences of the barriers and facilitators to wellbeing in women in work over 60 years old · 2026 · DOI

• Leveraging the SOEP-RV linkage, we make visible heterogeneity in caregiving-related pension accumulation and gaps in credit coverage that prior studies typically could not assess due to data limitations.

  Is there a pension penalty for late-career family caregiving in Germany? The role of pension care credits and employment career · 2026 · DOI

• This study is based on a systematic literature review and bibliometric analysis using the Web of Science database and a defined set of search filters (language, document subject categories). As a result, several limitations should be acknowledged. First, restricting the search to a single type, publication years, and 48 Silver Economy as a New Dimension of the Labour Market of the Slovak Republic workplace adaptation for older employees and the development of the silver economy are strategically essential for sustainable growth in ageing societies. Similarly, Heshmati et al. (2019) emphasise that older generations are often particularly vulnerable and that it is important to create working conditions and social policies that support active ageing. The identified inequality factors—technological change, education, globalisation, and labour market reform—indicate that without targeted policies, the older workforce may be pushed to the margins, thereby weakening the potential of the silver economy as well. The text also highlights the need for reforms in taxation, education, and the labour market, which must be designed to support equal opportunities, including those for older employees. Overall, it shows that inclusive growth and effective age management are interlinked conditions for sustainable socio-economic development. In contrast, Barković et al. (2024) conclude that modern seniors are healthier, more active, and possess substantial purchasing power, making them a significant economic force and supporting the dynamic growth of the silver economy. Their study emphasises that global population ageing fundamentally changes demographic structures and the economic environment, creating new challenges and opportunities for age management and the silver economy. Overall, the text demonstrates that supporting silver entrepreneurship and age-friendly policies is key to productively managing demographic change and building a sustainable, inclusive economy. Research findings on the macroeconomic aspects of the silver economy have expanded significantly over the past decade, with authors increasingly pointing to the transformative nature of demographic ageing for modern economies. Initially, the concept of the silver economy was understood primarily as economic activity related to the consumption of goods and services intended for the older population. Today, however, this concept has shifted towards a comprehensive economic model that also includes the participation of older people in the labour market, the development of innovations, technological solutions, and new forms of social entrepreneurship (Harper, 2023; OECD, 2019). According to the works of Bloom, Canning, and Fink (2011), population ageing can be interpreted not only as a risk to fiscal sustainability, but also as a driver of economic growth – provided that society is able to effectively utilise the human capital of older generations. In this sense, the concept of the silver economy builds on endogenous growth theory, which emphasises the role of knowledge, experience, and innovation as driving forces of economic productivity. Within the European context, this concept has gained institutional support through initiatives of the the document European Commission, particularly “Green Paper on Ageing” (2021), which defines the silver economy as a strategic area of social and economic policy. Based on OECD recommendations (2020), several EU Member States are focusing on linking employment policies, social security systems, and lifelong learning in order to support productive ageing and increase the level of economic participation of the population aged 55+.

  SILVER ECONOMY AS A NEW DIMENSION OF THE LABOUR MARKET OF THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC · 2026 · DOI

• Future research could focus on longitudinal tracking of changes in the perception of social ESG aspects, cross-country comparisons, or a deeper analysis of additional individual employee characteristics.

  Perception of Social ESG Aspects by Employees: An Age-Based Assessment · 2026 · DOI

• The following section outlines the limitations of this study: 1. It would be beneficial to pursue further research into the following areas : The middle-aged and elderly workers in the labor market and the majority of business organizations are largely unacquainted with the gradual retirement system that has been promoted by the government.

  The Effect of Core Self-Evaluation on the Process of Gradual Retirement Among Middle-Aged and Older Workers · 2026 · DOI

• This study has some limitations. First, the GGS-PL survey does not provide information on whether stopping work resulted from voluntary reasons or was determined by other factors. Moreover, we lacked detailed job-specific information, apart from the sector in which each individual was employed. Such details could have provided additional insights into gender-based disparities in the professional mobility of young individuals.

  The role of education and gender in shaping career paths of Polish millennials: a shared frailty survival model analysis · 2026 · DOI

• There are, invariably, important limitations to our findings. First, we theorise more opportunities with safety-net eligibility, but, as described earlier, we really need evidence on individuals’ subjective assessments of their situations. Second, our use of labour force states at Time 1 captures only one point in time; we have no data on respondents’ prior work histories to understand later life employment dynamics in broader life course context. Third, while the CPS panels of monthly data over 16-month permit analysis of proximate multiple labour market changes, the absence of observations during the middle eight months of the panel does not allow us to capture the full extent of employment transitions. Thus, our calculations of the prevalence and probability of experiencing churn likely underestimate true rates of churn in older adult populations. Similarly, the relatively short follow-up does not permit us to examine churn across a longer time span or the impacts of churn on later health and wellbeing. A promising direction for future research would be uncovering the long-term patterns and consequences of work churn in the later life course. Fourth, dislocations like COVID-19 could well accentuate multiple labour market moves, but these data only cover the period prior to the pandemic. Future research is needed to see whether the pandemic and the post-pandemic economy have changed the options, insecurities and mindsets of older adults, rendering churn more likely. We focus specifically on the American case; there is clear need for cross-national comparative research on churn, given that later Longit Life Course Stud. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2026 March 01. A u t h o r M a n u s c r i p t A u t h o r M a n u s c r i p t A u t h o r M a n u s c r i p t A u t h o r M a n u s c r i p t Wang et al. Page 14 life course employment and the retirement transition are transforming across the globe (Van Der Horst et al, 2017; Platts et al, 2023). Despite these shortcomings, this study reveals later adulthood as a dynamic, transitional phase of the work course, no longer a lock-step path leading to single retirement exits for a significant segment of this population. The labour market changes we document here also point to the value of short-term panel data for capturing the complexities in work transitions. Time frames in much population research often reflect less theorisation than (annual or biannual) data availability. CPS panel data are an underutilised resource for capturing the short-term employment shifts that obviously exist. Finally, this study points to the importance of considering heterogeneities within later adulthood at the intersections of gender, race/ethnicity and health to be sure, but also the importance of timing, age-related variations that we argue may well reflect age-stratified norms and safety nets in combination with gender and other social locations. Large-scale data permit us to test theories on intersecting characteristics, and our findings confirm the value of integrating an intersectional lens into the gendered life course framework. We have demonstrated that the common practice of lumping older age groups together (‘age 50 and older’, ‘age 60 and older’, ‘age 65 and older’) obfuscates tangible gendered life course differences in later adulthood. This work was supported by the National Science Foundation (grant number 1850914); the Minnesota Population Center at the University of Minnesota (grant number P2CH041023) and IPUMS CPS (grant number R01HD067258), both funded through grants from the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute for Child Health and Human Development (NICHD); and the Life Course Center on the Demography and Economics of Aging (grant number 1P30AG066613), funded through a grant from the National Institute on Aging (NIA).

  Churn in later adulthood? A gendered life course approach using short-term panel data from the US Current Population Survey · 2026 · DOI

• independently driving retention attitudes. Third, Several limitations should be considered when interpreting these findings. The use of cross-sectional FEVS data limits causal inference in several important respects. First, the design precludes establishing temporal ordering among POS, ES, and TI; longitudinal data would be necessary to confirm that organizational support precedes satisfaction, which in turn precedes withdrawal cognitions, as the theoretical model implies. Second, reverse causation cannot be ruled out—employees with lower turnover intention may report higher POS and ES due to motivated reasoning or identity-consistent responding, rather than support and satisfaction the concurrent measurement of all constructs introduces the possibility of unmeasured culture, occupational role, or mission salience may simultaneously shape POS, ES, and TI in ways the present design cannot isolate. Finally, because POS is measured at the same time point as ES and TI, endogeneity remains a concern—satisfaction may influence how employees perceive and report organizational support, rather than the reverse. Organizational Support Theory provides a theoretically grounded basis for treating POS as antecedent to satisfaction (Eisenberger et al., 2020), but the cross-sectional design cannot adjudicate between competing causal orderings. Future research employing longitudinal FEVS waves, administrative linkage to actual turnover records, or quasi-experimental designs leveraging agencylevel policy variation would offer stronger grounds for causal interpretation. third-variable confounding; agency-level Beyond causal inference concerns, POS, ES, and TI were derived from items not originally designed as standalone scales. Although psychometric analyses supported construct validity, purpose-built measures could RETENTION OF EARLY-CAREER FEDERAL EMPLOYEES 1231 improve precision. A related psychometric limitation concerns the degree of construct overlap between POS and ES in the present measurement model. Although confirmatory factor analysis supported a two-factor structure with all indicators loading significantly on their hypothesized constructs, average variance extracted (AVE) for both POS (.548) and ES (.636) fell below the squared inter-construct correlation (.796), indicating that the Fornell-Larcker criterion for discriminant validity was not met (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). This pattern is consistent with the high standardized path coefficient observed between POS and ES (β =.97) and reflects a known limitation of secondary survey data not designed to operationalize theoretically distinct constructs. The FEVS items used to approximate POS and ES capture related facets of the employee experience—support, development opportunity, and satisfaction—which share substantial conceptual terrain. Composite reliability was strong for both constructs (ω =.926 for POS; ω =.929 for ES), indicating that each scale measured its intended domain consistently; however, the construct overlap limits the precision with which POS and ES can be treated as fully independent latent variables. Future research should employ purpose-built measures administered under conditions that reduce shared method variance to more rigorously test the independence of these constructs. recognition, The single-item measure of TI may underrepresent the complexity of turnover decision-making, and the binary age grouping (<40 vs. ≥40) simplifies career-stage dynamics. Lastly, model modifications were guided by theoretical rationale and prior FEVS research; however, the large to minor misspecifications, and cross-validation in future samples would strengthen confidence in model specification.

  Retention of Early-Career Federal Employees: The Role of Organizational Support and Satisfaction · 2026 · DOI

• The impact of internalised ageist stereotypes regarding older workers’ ability to acquire knowledge later in life is underexplored but may significantly affect their motivation to participate in CVET and indirectly influence their labour market participation in later life.

  Continuing Vocational Educational Training, Self-Directed Ageism, and Extending Working Lives: Evidence from the German Ageing Survey · 2025 · DOI

• Little is known about age management practices in Scandinavian organisations, considering the region’s high prevalence of workers beyond the age of 50 across both private and public organisations.

  What Do We Know about Age Management Practices in Public and Private Institutions in Scandinavia?—A Public Health Perspective · 2024 · DOI

• In 2004, the Korean government established its own program, the Korean Senior Employment Program (KSEP); however, literature for international readers on this innovative program is lacking.

  Older Workers and Federal Work Programs: The Korean Senior Employment Program (KSEP) · 2016 · DOI

• Originality/value – This paper addresses a gap in research into later life working and also demonstrates the ways in which the nature of employment among the over-65s is changing, thereby challenging some of the assumptions about those who work into later life and how they are – or should be managed.

  Managing employees beyond age 65: from the margins to the mainstream? · 2016 · DOI

• Using an age diverse national sample of workers ( n = 800) from a wide range of occupations and socioeconomic backgrounds in the United States, this study investigated understudied psychosocial factors (age identity, aging anxiety, perceived age discrimination, perceived social support at work, and work centrality) that may buffer or hinder job satisfaction, commitment, and engagement.

  Ageism in the Workplace: The Role of Psychosocial Factors in Predicting Job Satisfaction, Commitment, and Engagement · 2016 · DOI

• While a growing body of work provides advice and strategies on making government work more inviting for the members of the Millennial generation, those born after 1982, not much is known about the turnover intentions of those already in public service.

  Turnover Intentions and Work Motivations of Millennial Employees in Federal Service · 2015 · DOI

• Originality/value – This study provides new empirical evidence from the Italian context on the largely under-investigated issue of the role played by age in shaping HR managers ' attitudes towards older workers, and age management policies in particular.

  Perceived qualities of older workers and age management in companies · 2015 · DOI

• This gap in knowledge leaves career counselors and counselor educators without an empirical foundation for addressing the particular career development needs of such populations in this troubled economic climate, making it difficult for counselors to respond to calls and implement concrete social justice interventions and actions (Hansen, 2003; Metz & Guichard, 2009; Pope, 2003).

  Opportunities for Action: Traditionally Marginalized Populations and the Economic Crisis · 2014 · DOI

• AIMS: The association between a low socioeconomic position and disability retirement is established in the literature, but the interrelationships between various subdomains of socioeconomic position are poorly understood.

  Interrelationships between education, occupational social class, and income as determinants of disability retirement · 2012 · DOI

• Since Japanese older adults report one of the lowest satisfaction rates in quality of life among industrialized nations, a structural reform in social policies related to income maintenance, labour, education, and long-term care in Japan is warranted to realize the true essence of ‘ productive ageing.

  Productive ageing in Japan · 2010 · DOI

• Based on the findings, raising the Social Security eligibility age is likely to result in increased numbers of Disability Insurance (DI) claimants, and the fiscal impact of such an increase needs to be examined.

  Potential Consequences of Raising the Social Security Eligibility Age on Low-Income Older Workers · 2000 · DOI

• THE NEED TO REFORM the tottering Ponzi scheme that is our Social Security system is widely accepted among policy makers, even if the political willingness to tackle the subject is lacking.

  Lessons Our 401(k)s Taught Us · 1999

• Results show that while the company operated an age‐awareness personnel policy, this still focused on younger employees so that participants in the career development process were insufficiently stimulated in their roles and traditional formal HRD activities had little effect on older workers’ careers.

  Supporting the Career Development of Older Employees: an HRD Study in a Dutch Company · 1997 · DOI

• Those investigating the ways in which caregivers accommodate these competing demands have speculated that blue- or pink-collar workers may differ from their white-collar counterparts in the kinds or intensity of work disruptions they face, but few studies have contained information on workers' jobs that would permit systematic analysis of this question.

  From Executive Suite to Production Line · 1994 · DOI

• This investigation revealed definite discriminations concerning the social status of twenty-six of the more common occupations. These discriminations are indicative of social approval or disapproval of the occupations, and as such act as a powerful force which society wields over the individual and to which the individual will respond, consciously or unconsciously, as he proceeds to make his occupational choice. The presence of this motive may interfere with a judicious consideration of aptitudes and opportunities, and because of this interference a vocational guidance problem arises.

  The Ranking of Occupations on the Basis of Social Status · 1949 · DOI

• It was found that higher education acts as a protective factor against technological isolation, while people with secondary education usually have only basic competencies that are insufficient in the digitalised labour market.

  Employment Opportunities of Pre-Retirement Age (60 to 64) Individuals: Digital Self-Perception and Regional Polarisation / Priešpensinio amžiaus (60–64 m.) asmenų užimtumo galimybės: skaitmeninė savivoka ir regioninė poliarizacija · 2026 · DOI

• It is crucial for policymakers to account for the intergenerational implications of female retirement—even though they lie beyond the scope of this paper—since women’s labor force participation can profoundly influence the fertility decisions and labor supply of subsequent generations.

  Retirement decisions in the age of COVID-19 pandemic: are older employees in digital occupations working longer? · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Retirement, Disability, and Employment

• Generational Differences in Work Values: Leisure and Extrinsic Values Increasing, Social and Intrinsic Values Decreasing · Journal of Management · 2010 · 966 citations
• Employee Retirement: A Review and Recommendations for Future Investigation · Journal of Management · 2009 · 595 citations
• Older workers' motivation to continue to work: five meanings of age · Journal of Managerial Psychology · 2008 · 471 citations
• Career-relevant learning and development, worker age, and beliefs about self-efficacy for development · Journal of Management · 2001 · 366 citations
• The Career Dynamics of Self-Employment · Administrative Science Quarterly · 1987 · 275 citations
• Using the kaleidoscope career model to examine generational differences in work attitudes · Career Development International · 2009 · 189 citations
• Is It Harder for Older Workers to Find Jobs? New and Improved Evidence from a Field Experiment · Journal of Political Economy · 2018 · 180 citations
• How retirees work: predictors of different types of bridge employment · Journal of Organizational Behavior · 2008 · 152 citations
• Employment status, social support, and life satisfaction among the elderly. · Journal of Counseling Psychology · 1996 · 128 citations
• Turnover Intentions and Work Motivations of Millennial Employees in Federal Service · Public Personnel Management · 2015 · 116 citations

Most recent work

• Post-retirement Quality of Life: Insights from SSNIT Pensioners in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana · Journal of Cross-Cultural Gerontology · 2026
• Entfesselung des Arbeitskräftepotenzials für Wachstum und entlastete Staatsfinanzen · Wirtschaftsdienst · 2026
• The Impact of Sensory Impairment on Involuntary Retirement: A 16-year Follow-up Study on National Representative Aging · Journal of Occupational & Environmental Medicine · 2026
• Retention of Early-Career Federal Employees: The Role of Organizational Support and Satisfaction · North American Journal of Psychology · 2026
• Favoriser et valoriser l’employabilité des seniors en entreprise · Archives des maladies professionnelles et de médecine du travail/Archives des maladies professionnelles et de l'environnement · 2026
• Later-Life Employment Transitions and Frailty: A Gendered Analysis Using Asymmetric Fixed-Effects Models · Research on Aging · 2026
• Life-course Trajectories of Work Productivity and Multidimensional Health: A Longitudinal Study of Childhood Socioeconomic Conditions in Aging Adults · Research in Health Science · 2026
• The Impact of the ‘Preparing for the Labour Market’ Status on the Employment Prospects of Older Jobseekers of the Lithuanian Employment Service · Socialinė teorija empirija politika ir praktika · 2026
• Hindering and facilitating factors for developing and implementing HR measures for older workers · German Journal of Human Resource Management Zeitschrift für Personalforschung · 2026
• Gender and Educational Inequalities in Active Ageing: Evidence from Slovakia in a European Context · Stanovnistvo · 2026

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