Open research questions in Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies

What the literature leaves open

• Although previous studies have examined interprofessional collaboration within healthcare settings and multidisciplinary responses to child abuse, few studies have directly compared the perceptions of physicians, nurses, and criminal investigators involved in sexual abuse response. This study addresses an important gap in the literature, as empirical evidence examining collaboration between healthcare professionals and criminal investigation authorities in responses to sexual abuse remains limited, particularly within the Portuguese context.

  Interdisciplinary collaboration between healthcare professionals and criminal investigation authorities in responses to sexual abuse in Portugal · 2026 · DOI

• Research suggests that tailoring bystander programs to target populations elicits the best results; however, limited research exists regarding bystander programs tailored to FSL communities.

  Preventing Gender-Based Violence and Supporting Survivors in the Fraternity and Sorority Community: Evaluating a Collaboratively Developed Pilot Program · 2026 · DOI

• 56 The literature indicates that further research is warranted in the context of the important pursuit of specialisation because of ‘a deeply concerning risk of burnout and vicarious trauma for justice system personnel who regularly engage empathetically with victim-survivors’ that the literature does not discuss ‘in detail except to identify them as challenges that needed to be better understood’. 4 The statistics are indicative of an unreasonable level of attrition; they point to a problem that needs to be investigated. 5 The high attrition rates in each jurisdiction need to be investigated to identify reasons for the attrition and develop strategies to address any systemic failures. If the review process determines that a matter warrants further investigation, a trauma-informed approach must be adopted when informing the complainant, including not proceeding if that is the complainant’s preference. 18 Sexual violence continues to be underreported to police, and attrition rates16 for people who decide to report remain high. For reports of any crime, a reasonable level of attrition is to be expected during the police investigation stage for a multitude of reasons, including people withdrawing their report; unco-operative or unreliable witnesses; contradictory forensic evidence, an inability to identify or locate the accused person; or insufficient evidence to prove the crime alleged. 10 The New South Wales police data contained limited information detailing the reasons for the attrition. For the remaining 25% where reasons were recorded, 48% of those recorded that the ‘victim was unwilling’, 40% recorded that there was ‘insufficient evidence’, 4% recorded that the accused person was a child under the age of criminal responsibility, 4% recorded ‘withdrawn complaint’, and 3% recorded the accused person was deceased. 46 Lack of understanding about the nature of the offence, or a belief that there was ‘insufficient evidence’, meant that general duty officers did not seek to refer the case to the specialist team. 50 Limited information management systems impacting on ‘consistent and accurate record keeping’:51 There were ‘vast differences’ in recording practices, including in the application of clearance types, and a failure to note a comprehensive narrative of the investigation in PROMIS.

  Inoculation in the Courtroom: The Effect of Judicial Direction Timing on Mock Juror Decisions in a Rape Trial · 2026 · DOI

• Despite widespread efforts to address sexual assault on US college campuses through consent education, understanding and practicing consent remains a complex and under-researched area.

  Too Little, Too Late: Consent Education, Sexual Practice, and Institutional Power in College Life · 2026 · DOI

• Much research has attempted to understand why adults perpetrate child sexual abuse (CSA), but few studies have adopted the exploratory-inductive approach that allows perpetrators to freely account for their actions.

  Why Do Adults Sexually Abuse Children? A Systematic Scoping Review of How Male Perpetrators Qualitatively Account for Their Actions · 2026 · DOI

• Although the present study offers novel insights into the relationship between group-based victimization and training discontinuity, several limitations should be acknowledged. Gianettoni et al. Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training (2026) 18:7 Page 12 of 15 First, the set of control variables included in the analyses was limited by data avail- ability. While we adjusted for key structural characteristics theoretically relevant to both victimization and training trajectories (administrative sex, sex-typing of the training field, and concealment of sexual orientation), other factors commonly included in mod- els of educational persistence (e.g., prior academic performance, socioeconomic back- ground, mental health, and family resources) were not available. The absence of these variables limits both causal interpretation and internal validity. Future research should build on these findings using richer datasets and more explicit theoretical models to strengthen both internal and external validity. Second, the outcome measure captures training discontinuity operationalized as absence from class registers in the subsequent year rather than formally verified prema- ture training termination. Although absence from the registers constitutes a meaningful indicator of instability in training trajectories, it does not allow us to distinguish among different situations, such as contract termination, grade repetition, delayed progression, or continuation of training in another canton or institution. Distinguishing among these pathways would contribute to a more precise understanding of the educational con- sequences of victimization. Future studies linking administrative and contractual data would be particularly valuable. Third, concealment of sexual orientation was measured only in relation to the school context. Because apprentices alternate between school-based and workplace settings, concealment strategies may vary substantially across contexts. Our measure therefore provides only a partial representation of concealment processes during apprenticeship and may underestimating both their complexity and their role in shaping exposure to victimization and training outcomes. Future research should assess concealment across multiple contexts. Fourth, the analyses relied on self-reported measures of victimization and conceal- ment. Prior research indicates that disclosure decisions can influence both the likelihood of reporting victimization and the perceived severity of these experiences (Pachankis and Bränström 2018). Consequently, the prevalence of sexual orientation–based victim- ization may be underestimated in this study, particularly in strongly male-dominated training fields, where heterosexist norms may discourage disclosure and reporting. This limitation should be considered when interpreting prevalence estimates and group differences. Fifth, the study does not include measures of victimization based on gender identity or gender expression. This omission is important because existing research demonstrates that non-cisgender individuals and those who do not conform to traditional gender expressions are at heightened risk of heterosexist victimization (Lian et al. 2022). Future research should explicitly incorporate these dimensions, in addition to sex-based vic- timization, to more comprehensively capture the impact of victimization related to the gender system on vocational training trajectories. To better understand the differential impacts of sex-based and sexual orientation- based victimization, as well as the ways in which these impacts evolve over time, future research should integrate victimization into more comprehensive longitudinal models that include the individual, institutional, and contextual determinants theorized in the literature on dropout from initial vocational training (Böhn and Deutscher 2022). In addition, greater attention should be paid to protective and buffering mechanisms, such Gianettoni et al. Empirical Research in Vocational Education and Training (2026) 18:7 Page 13 of 15 as supportive peers, teachers, parents, and inclusive institutional policies. Examining how these resources contribute to resilience may help clarify why some forms of victim- ization are more strongly associated with training discontinuity than others.

  Impact of sex-based and sexual orientation-based victimization on training discontinuity among swiss apprentices: a longitudinal study · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the thematic findings and analysis, the study pro- poses several interrelated recommendations aimed at bridg- ing the gap between policy formulation and institutional practice. At the policy level, the Higher Education Com- mission (HEC) should mandate annual third-party audits of university harassment complaint committees, with par- ticular attention to procedural compliance, case resolution timelines, and survivor satisfaction. The development of a centralized digital grievance monitoring portal is also rec- ommended to enable systematic tracking of harassment cases across higher education institutions while ensur- ing anonymity and strengthening oversight. Additionally, establishing a national panel of gender justice experts could facilitate periodic reviews and enable cross-institutional comparison of policy implementation practices. At the institutional level, universities must strengthen internal mechanisms by adopting transparent reporting sys- tems that clearly outline complaint procedures, committee composition, and designated contact points. Mandatory pol- icy orientation sessions should be institutionalized for all academic staff, including visiting and contract faculty, dur- ing onboarding and through annual refresher training. Fur- thermore, inquiry committee membership should be subject to periodic rotation, accompanied by compulsory gender- sensitivity and trauma-informed training to enhance fairness and responsiveness. To empower faculty and staff, universities should sup- port the creation of peer support networks and confidential mentoring systems that encourage reporting and collective resistance to institutional silence. The formation of fac- ulty advocacy groups can further strengthen accountability by serving as intermediaries between academic staff and university leadership, while also functioning as watchdogs for effective policy enforcement. Finally, a data-driven monitoring framework is essential. Institutions should systematically collect disaggregated data by gender, rank, and contract status to identify patterns and vulnerabili- ties in harassment reporting and resolution. Such data can inform the development of a Higher Education Institution (HEI) Risk Index on harassment responsiveness, published annually to promote transparency and accountability. Col- lectively, these recommendations underscore the need for a multi-level response that integrates policy enforcement, institutional reform, and cultural transformation to ensure safer and more equitable higher education environments in Pakistan. Author contributions Both authors contributed equally to this work and read and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability Data supports findings will be available on request from the corresponding authors.

  From Policy to Practice: Evaluating the Implementation of HEC’s Sexual Harassment Policy in Public Universities of South Punjab · 2026 · DOI

• This study has several limitations that should be acknowl- edged. First, the research is geographically limited to public universities in Multan, which may affect the transferabil- ity of findings to other regions or institutional contexts. Second, the study focuses exclusively on female faculty members and does not include perspectives from male fac- ulty or administrative staff, which may provide additional insights into institutional dynamics. Third, while thematic analysis allowed for the identification of recurring patterns, the alignment of themes with research questions may have introduced a degree of analytical structuring that limited the emergence of alternative categorizations. Additionally, as the coding was conducted by a single researcher, the analy- sis may be influenced by interpretive subjectivity, despite efforts to ensure reflexivity and consistency. The study does not aim to measure prevalence or establish causal relation- ships, but rather to provide an in-depth qualitative under- standing of organizational processes. Future research could expand this work by incorporating comparative, quantita- tive, or mixed-method approaches.

  From Policy to Practice: Evaluating the Implementation of HEC’s Sexual Harassment Policy in Public Universities of South Punjab · 2026 · DOI

• This study is not without limitations. Firstly, the unsolicited receipt of genital images was examined exclusively within a heteronormative and binary framework. However, research suggests that sexual minorities also receive unsolicited genital images, and that sexist ideologies may influence how these experiences are evaluated and emotionally processed. In addition to expanding beyond heteronormative frameworks, future research should examine multiple predictors of participants’ responses—including beliefs in cyber-sexual violence myths, previous experiences of cyber- or face-to-face harassment, hostile or benevolent sexism, as well as potentially protective or empowering factors such as feminist beliefs, attitudes toward sexuality and pornography, enjoyment of self-sexualization, and levels of self-determination or agency.

  “Liking You Doesn’t Mean I Want Your Dickpic”: (Cyber)Rape Culture Predicts Women’s Perception and Emotional Responses to Unsolicited Genital Images · 2026 · DOI

• The study was conducted in KwaZulu-Natal with predominantly Zulu participants; the findings largely reflect local cultural understandings and may differ in other contexts. Some interviews were conducted telephonically, which limited observational field notes, and the predominance of male participants may have influenced the findings, as men and women may construct rape differently. Additionally, as interviews were conducted in isiZulu, translating culturally specific expressions into English may have resulted in some loss of contextual meaning.

  UKuvala umkhokha ‘ending the curse’: Unpacking the healing practice steps followed by traditional healers in KwaZulu-Natal when working with rape survivors · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings of this study, organizations within Kontagora Local Government Area are encouraged to reinforce workplace policies and mechanisms that protect employees from sexual harassment, including clear reporting channels, strict sanctions, and awareness programs aimed at fostering safe and respectful work environments. Additionally, organizations should adopt transparent, merit-based promotion systems to ensure fair career progression irrespective of employees’ vulnerability to workplace misconduct. Future research is recommended to explore qualitative dimensions and alternative organizational factors such as power relations, personal coping strategies, or institutional culture that may explain why employees exposed to higher harassment still KIJER 3(2) 95 Kontagora International Journal of Educational Research (KIJER) Volume 3, Issue 2, March 2026 https://fuekjournals.org/index.php/kijer appeared to advance in their careers, thereby generating deeper insights for policymaking and intervention planning.

  A Comparative Analysis of Career Advancement Between Employees with High and Low Levels of Sexual Harassment Experience in Organizations · 2026 · DOI

• Studies demonstrate that alongside gender, partisanship has become a powerful predictor of views on the #MeToo movement and sexual assault, but this empirical inquiry has not yet been assessed across the attitudes of rape myths among university students.

  “It’s Just ‘Locker Room’ Talk”: The Impact of Gender and Political Partisanship on Agreement with Rape Myths Among US University Students · 2025 · DOI

• Rough sex has become prevalent among young adults, yet little is known about the prevalence of consensual non-consent (CNC)-which is often enacted as role-playing sexual assault-or the correlates of either sexual choking or CNC.

  Prevalence and Correlates of Sexual Choking and Consensual Non-Consent (CNC) Among College Students: Findings from a Campus-Representative Survey · 2025 · DOI

• Policy implications: The results of this study implicate that the impact of gender-based perceptions and rape myths on rape-related attrition rates and sentencing in SVWM cases should be further explored in empirical research.

  “But Some People Still Think That Men Cannot be Raped”: A Qualitative Study on Portuguese Judges’ Perceptions Regarding Rape Perpetrated by Women Against Adult Men · 2025 · DOI

• Despite inconsistent research design, sampling frameworks, definitions and measures, and limited studies on staff experiences, review findings suggest that SV is a major issue for university students, impacting on well-being, personal relationships and academic performance.

  UK prevalence of university student and staff experiences of sexual violence and domestic violence and abuse: a systematic review from 2002 to 2022 · 2024 · DOI

• Findings suggest that the HHRDS generally functions equivalently across sexual orientation, gender, and racial/ethnic groups, but some caution in interpreting scores is warranted.

  Use of the Heterosexist Harassment, Rejection, and Discrimination Scale With Different Sexual Orientation, Gender, and Racial/Ethnic Groups: An Examination of Measurement Invariance · 2023 · DOI

• As more studies are warranted to disentangle the complexity of gender, race, class, citizenship status, and power in sexual harassment, and these factors intersecting and multiplying impacts on women's health and well‐being, I recommend linking the literature on sexual harassment and health with the gaming‐hospitality literature.

  The impact of sexual harassment on women's health and well‐being: A case for studying the casino gaming industry · 2023 · DOI

• Education level, social media use, and victimization history yielded mixed findings across RMA subscales, while age, race/ethnicity, income level, and regional location showed no associations with RMA.

  Rape Myth Acceptance in a Community Sample of Adult Women in the Post #MeToo Era · 2023 · DOI

• There is limited literature on sexual coercion/harassment of university students with disabilities, hence we, explored this phenomenon in Ghana, using a sequential explanatory-mixed method design that involved 119 (62 males and 57 females) students with various disabilities in the quantitative study and 12 (7 females and 5 males) students in the qualitative phase using questionnaire and interview guide for data collection respectively.

  Sexual Coercion and Harassment of Students with Disabilities in a Public University in Ghana · 2023 · DOI

• It is also well known that credibility assessment in the asylum system involves working with ambiguity and challenges, but this has rarely been explored with a particular focus on SGBV.

  Speaking the Unspeakable: Disclosures of Sexual and Gender-based Violence in Asylum Credibility Assessments · 2022 · DOI

• Thematic analysis uncovered three themes including: 1) Luck of the Draw: Who Gets the Case? 2) Lack of Evidence: How Do We Proceed? and 3) Case Classifications: What is ‘Unfounded’ Anyway? Uncovering the compassionate approach of officers committed to assisting sexual assault survivors may counteract negative discourse and promote a victim-centered approach.

  Police officer perspectives on the challenges of investigating sexual assault · 2022 · DOI

• After analyzing the 25 articles that met the inclusion criteria, the main findings point that despite the existence of numerous international studies of the presence of violence against LGBTIQ+ people at colleges, little is known about this reality in Spain.

  Violence Against LGBTIQ+ People at Universities: The Need to Uncover a Silent Reality · 2022 · DOI

• This article begins to address this gap in knowledge and presents findings from qualitative research with offending girls who participated in a RJ conference, a group whose voices are seldom heard, and RJ practitioners.

  The Politics of Shame, Stigma and Gender: Implications for Restorative Justice Conferencing with Justice-Involved Girls · 2022 · DOI

• Conclusions: There is an urgent need for further research into the histories of sexual violence across different Latin American countries in later modernity, especially since the issues highlighted by all four authors—particularly related to gender, racial, and class discrimination and stereotyping that harm victims—remain relevant to contemporary experiences.

  Histories of Sexual Violence in Nineteenth and Twentieth Century Latin America: An Introduction · 2022 · DOI

• Whilst educational psychologists (EPs) have an established role in child protection and safeguarding, the work they do in relation to CSE is underexplored.

  Exploring Psychological Frameworks to Guide Educational Psychologists’ Practice in Relation to Child Sexual Exploitation · 2020 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Sexual Assault and Victimization Studies

• The scope of rape: Incidence and prevalence of sexual aggression and victimization in a national sample of higher education students. · Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology · 1987 · 1,792 citations
• The Sociology of Gaslighting · American Sociological Review · 2019 · 352 citations
• College Women's Experiences with Physically Forced, Alcohol- or Other Drug-Enabled, and Drug-Facilitated Sexual Assault Before and Since Entering College · Journal of American College Health · 2009 · 350 citations
• “By the semi‐mystical appearance of a condom”: How young women and men communicate sexual consent in heterosexual situations · The Journal of Sex Research · 1999 · 299 citations
• Technology-Facilitated Sexual Violence Victimization: Results From an Online Survey of Australian Adults · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · 2016 · 250 citations
• The Under detection of Rape: Methodological Choices Influence Incidence Estimates · Journal of Social Issues · 1992 · 184 citations
• Intimate Violence Among Underrepresented Groups on a College Campus · Journal of Interpersonal Violence · 2011 · 138 citations
• The Absent Presence: Negative Space within Discourse and the Construction of Minority Sexual Identity in the Workplace · Human Relations · 2003 · 137 citations
• Reducing Sexual Violence on Campus: The Role of Student Leaders as Empowered Bystanders · Journal of college student development · 2009 · 134 citations
• Are men sexually harassed? If so, by whom? · Law and Human Behavior · 1998 · 132 citations

Most recent work

• Responding to Students: Remedies in Title IX Sexual Assault Cases · Journal of Public Affairs Education · 2026
• <i>‘We Need to Be on the Same Page’</i> : Survivor-Informed Recommendations for Interagency Collaboration for Commercially Sexually Exploited Youth in the United States · Journal of Human Trafficking · 2026
• “Liking You Doesn’t Mean I Want Your Dickpic”: (Cyber)Rape Culture Predicts Women’s Perception and Emotional Responses to Unsolicited Genital Images · Archives of Sexual Behavior · 2026
• Unveiling Bias: The Impact of Male Rape Myths and Stereotypes on Juror Verdicts in Male‐on‐Male Rape Trials · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · 2026
• Inoculation in the Courtroom: The Effect of Judicial Direction Timing on Mock Juror Decisions in a Rape Trial · Behavioral Sciences & the Law · 2026
• Power, institutional protectionism and the disinclination of minoritised employees to raise complaints in UK universities · Culture and Organization · 2026
• Why Do Adults Sexually Abuse Children? A Systematic Scoping Review of How Male Perpetrators Qualitatively Account for Their Actions · Victims & Offenders · 2026
• Legal Challenges Related to Workplace Sexual Harassment. · International Journal of Creative and Open Research in Engineering and Management · 2026
• How coworker responses to identity-based sexual harassment complicate current bystander intervention models: Coworkers as complex champions, contradictory confidants, and complicit conspirators · Communication Monographs · 2026
• One in two sexual assault survivors leave the emergency department without an Initial Medical Certificate: gaps in medico-legal documentation in two Paris emergency departments · International Journal of Emergency Medicine · 2026

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