Open research questions in Work-Family Balance Challenges

What the literature leaves open

• Future research should continue to examine how remote work arrangements influence psychological and relational outcomes over time, particularly through the lens of longitudinal or experimental designs. One promising avenue is to investigate how the quality and source of auton- omy—whether self-directed, manager-supported, or structurally embed- ded—shape well-being and organizational commitment in remote and hybrid settings. Additionally, further exploration is needed to disentangle the mechanisms behind perceived connection in distributed work envi- ronments. For example, future studies could assess how different modes of virtual interaction (e.g., synchronous video calls, asynchronous mes- saging, digital collaboration tools) influence social cohesion and team dynamics. While our study did not find tenure, age or gender to influ- ence the pattern of relationships observed, research should con- sider other moderating variables such as personality traits, caregiving responsibilities, and digital fluency, which may affect how individuals experience autonomy and connection across work settings. Future research should seek to replicate these find- ings in comparable organizational contexts, such as other hospital or healthcare systems, to assess the consistency and generalizabil- ity of the observed effects. Replication studies may be particularly valuable for further examining the non-significant findings and determining whether these results reflect contextual factors, sam- ple-specific characteristics, or the absence of meaningful relation- ships. To that end, cross-cultural or cross-industry comparisons could offer deeper insights into the contextual factors that shape employee experiences in the evolving landscape of work.

  Rethinking return-to-office: the positive impact of remote work on well-being, connection, and employee retention · 2026 · DOI

• 1. The Zamfara State Ministry of Education and the Secondary Schools Management Board must eliminate institutional apathy by establishing targeted stress-optimisation frameworks, which include expanding teaching staff to reduce swelling class sizes, easing administrative bottlenecks, and training principals in supportive leadership styles to prevent chronic occupational exhaustion among female teachers 2. School management boards should urgently formulate and implement institutional Quality of Work Life (QWL) policies that formally accommodate the socio-cultural domestic responsibilities of female teachers by guaranteeing timely compensation, upgrading dilapidated school infrastructure, and establishing flexible workplace guidelines that directly enhance job satisfaction and instructional delivery.

  Workplace-Stress and Quality of Work-Life on Female Teachers' Performance in Secondary Schools in Zamfara State · 2026 · DOI

• Originality/value To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first research article intending to incorporate the concept of LDW, supported by arguments from related and limited literature available.

  Rest, recover and perform: conceptualizing the idea of lazy days at the workplace · 2026 · DOI

• Design/methodology/approach We approach this novel concept of LDW with the help of a semi-formal methodology that combines the limited literature that we have with the “viewpoint” article classification.

  Rest, recover and perform: conceptualizing the idea of lazy days at the workplace · 2026 · DOI

• This study is limited by the relatively small sample size of 50 research articles, which may not comprehensively represent the entire body of literature on teachers’ happiness and workplace productivity.

  Teachers’ Happiness and Workplace Productivity: A Bibliometric Review of Emerging Research Trends · 2026 · DOI

• Because coping was measured at the nominal level and some themes were sparsely endorsed, power was limited for certain estimates and observed relationships likely represent lower bound associations; under these condi- tions, nondifferential misclassification of strategy use typically attenuates regression associations toward zero (Carroll et al.

  Managing Work and Family Demands during Times of Crisis: A Mixed Methods Examination with Evidence from COVID-19 · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings and conclusions, the study recommends the following practical actions to enhance occupational well-being, role performance, and organizational efficiency among engineering professionals in Ghana’s seaports. On the one hand, it is recommended that seaport management adopt a comprehensive employee well-being strategy that integrates health promotion, stress management, and resilience-building programs into organizational policy. Regular wellness assessments, peer-support networks, and counselling services should be institutionalized to help engineers cope effectively with operational pressures and maintain sustained productivity. On the other hand, supervisors and line managers should strengthen role communication and workload management practices. Clear job descriptions, participatory decision- making, and consistent feedback mechanisms should be prioritized to reduce role ambiguity and enhance confidence in performance. Effective supervisory engagement will promote clarity, accountability, and coordination across engineering units, particularly during complex maintenance and safety operations. Moreover, the Human Resource Department should develop structured professional development and mentorship frameworks tailored to engineering personnel. Targeted training in leadership, technical upskilling, and interpersonal competencies can improve role mastery, motivation, and long-term occupational resilience, fostering a more adaptive workforce in dynamic seaport environments. Additionally, senior engineers and technical supervisors should take a proactive mentoring role in guiding less-experienced professionals. Through on-the-job coaching, technical collaboration, and knowledge transfer, senior professionals can help younger engineers navigate operational stressors, strengthen competence, and cultivate teamwork and confidence in high-risk environments. Finally, policymakers and regulatory bodies, particularly the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority, should ensure that occupational health and safety regulations explicitly incorporate psychological well-being standards. Enforcing compliance with employee welfare and mental health policies will promote safer, more sustainable work conditions and demonstrate institutional commitment to holistic worker welfare. Limitations and direction for future studies This study has several noteworthy limitations. First, its cross-sectional design constrains the ability to infer causal relationships, as data were collected at a single point in time, preventing the establishment of temporal sequencing among variables. Second, the study relied solely on a quantitative research approach, which, although effective in identifying statistical relationships between variables, does not provide the in-depth contextual understanding necessary to explain why these relationships exist. Incorporating qualitative methods, such as interviews or focus groups, into future research could yield richer insights into the underlying experiences and mechanisms that influence work- related stress and well-being. Third, the study’s focus on engineering professionals in Ghana’s seaports limits the generalizability of the findings to other occupational or industrial contexts, where the dynamics of work-related stress and well-being may differ. Future research should consider adopting longitudinal designs to better understand how work-related conditions, stress, and role characteristics evolve and influence well-being among seaport professionals. Expanding the scope beyond engineering roles to include other critical occupational groups within maritime operations would enhance understanding of sector-wide workplace dynamics. Additionally, integrating qualitative approaches, such as interviews or focus groups, could provide deeper perspectives on lived experiences and contextual challenges in port environments. Finally, future studies may also examine additional moderating or mediating variables, such as leadership styles, 34 | Nana Asamoah OBIMPEH, Dennis Yao DZANSI, Thywill Cephas DZOGBEWU Engineers’ Work-Role, Work-Related Stress and Well-Being in Ghana’s Seaport safety climate, organizational culture, and personal resilience, to uncover broader mechanisms influencing employee well-being.

  Engineers’ Work Role, Work-Related Stress and Well-Being in Ghana’s Seaports · 2026 · DOI

• Recommendations for Future Research Future research may examine the relationship between POS and WE in different sectors and cultural contexts to improve the generalizability of the International Journal of Contemporary Economics and Administrative Sciences ISSN: 1925 – 4423 Volume: XVI, Issue: 1, Year: 2026, pp. Therefore, future studies may examine the alternative mediating and moderating variables relationship between POS and WE. Second, the findings are limited to employees working in educational institutions in Hatay, Türkiye, which may restrict the generalizability of the results.

  The Mediating Role of Psychological Well-Being and Work-Life Balance in the Relationship Between Perceived Organizational Support and Work Engagement · 2026 · DOI

• (cid:127) Organizations should develop comprehensive remote work policies and guidelines. (cid:127) Employers should invest in reliable digital infrastructure and cybersecurity systems. (cid:127) Continuous training should be provided to improve employees' digital competencies. (cid:127) Organizations should adopt performance-based management systems that focus on outcomes rather than physical presence. (cid:127) Employee well-being programs should be strengthened to address mental health and work-life balance concerns. Donnelly, R., & Johns, J. (2021). Recontextualising remote working and its HRM in the digital economy. Irish Journal of Management, 40(2), 1–13. International Labour Organization. (2020). An employers’ guide on the outbreak of in response to working from home COVID-19. Geneva, Switzerland: ILO. Messenger, J. C. (2019). Telework in the 21st century: An evolutionary perspective. Cheltenham, England: Edward Elgar Publishing. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2021). The future of teleworking. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. Prasad, K. D. V., Vaidya, R. W., & Mangipudi, M. R. (2020).

  Remote Work Practices and Employee Productivity in the Post COVID-19 Business Environment · 2026 · DOI

• It is certain the present study also has some limitations. Primarily, this study was limited to the relationship between WFH practice and workflow experience and testing the moderating role of demographic variables in this relationship. However, future studies can focus on to examine the associations between employees' burnout, organizational trust, organizational loyalty, job satisfaction, motivation, innovation, ethical behavior, emotional intelligence levels etc. in order to notice the different consequence of WFH. Our study was also limited to data obtained from 421 participants through online and face-to-face surveys applied to bank professionals using the convenience sampling method. An undefined prejudice may occur in the representativeness of the sample size. However, we believe that this study reduces REFERENCES Akman, A. Z., Evliyaoglu, F., Çolak, H. E. E., & Erdirencelebi, M. (2023). Uzaktan çalışma yaşam ölçeği: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Anadolu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 24(1), 254-277. https://doi. org/10.53443/anadoluibfd.1169089 Aprilina, R. and Mardianty, F. (2021). “The role of hybridworking in improving employees' satisfaction, perceived productivity, and organizations' capabilities”. Journal of Theoretical and Applied Management, 16(2), 206-222. https://doi.org/10.20473/jmtt.v16i2.45632 Bakker, A. B. (2008). “The work-related flow inventory: Construction and initial validation of the WOLF”. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(3), 400-414. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007.11.007 Başol, O. and Çömlekçi, M. F. (2021). “A research on remote working and its relation with social and demographic variables”. Eskisehir Osmangazi University Journal of Economics and Administrative Sciences, 6(3), 755- 776. https://doi.org/10.17153/oguiibf.941442 Belanger, F. (1999). “Workers’ propensity to telecommute: An empirical study”. Information Management, 35(3), 139- 153. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-7206(98)00091-3 Bonaiuto, M., Mao, Y., Roberts, S., Psalti, A., Ariccio, S., Ganucci Cancellieri, U. and Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2016). “Optimal experience and personal growth: Flow and theconsolidation of place identity”. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1654. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01654 Grant, C.A., Wallace, L.M., Spurgeon P.G., Tramontano. C. and Charalampous, M. (2019). “Construction and initial validation of the e-work life scale to measure remote e-working”. Employee Relations, 41(1), 16-33. https://doi. org/10.1108/ER-09-2017-0229 Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1975). Beyond Boredom and Anxiety: Experiencing Flow in Work and Play. New Jersey: Jossey- Bass Publishers. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper & Row. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1998). Flow: The psychology of engagement with everyday life. New York: HarperCollins Publishers. Demirhan, A. and Bulgur, E. N. (2023).

  DOES WORKING FROM HOME ENHANCE WORKFLOW EXPERIENCE? A STUDY OF DEMOGRAPHIC DIFFERENCES AMONG BANK EMPLOYEES · 2026 · DOI

• The purpose of the typology is to inform future research and guide couples and organisations nav- igating hybrid working dual-career arrangements. While typologies offer conceptual clarity, they inevitably simplify the fluid realities of couple dynamics. Ideal types are constructed through selec- tive emphasis, which may obscure nuance and variation across time and context; as Wallman (1984) reminds us, real life rarely conforms to tidy categorisations. Our typology is grounded in a specific sample of heteronormative, hybrid working couples in the knowledge sector within an egalitarian cultural context, underscoring the need for future research in more diverse relational, occupational, and sociocultural settings. Future research should examine couples with divergent occupational arrangements, including manual labour or asymmetrical access to hybrid work, to understand how flexibility is negoti- ated across different structural conditions. Research engaging single-sex couples and culturally conservative contexts is needed to explore how relational and sociocultural norms shape hybrid working practices. Intersectional inquiry should address how ethnicity, class, and disability influence access to hybrid work and identity enactment. These future research directions respond to calls for organisational approaches that reflect the diverse realities of working from home and their implica- tions for well-being, engagement, and performance (Khalid, Parry & Ridgway, 2023). There is also value in extending inquiry beyond couple-level dynamics to include other house- hold members, particularly children, whose perspectives offer important insights into family life and decision-making (Mutter, 2024). Longitudinal research is essential to examine how dual-career cou- ples navigate evolving demands of work and family over time, including whether both partners can maintain fulfilling careers, achieve work–life balance, and manage caregiving responsibilities.

  Work and family in hybrid contexts: A typology of dual-career couples · 2026 · DOI

• Yet little is known as to whether their propensity to work desynchronized schedules has changed over time given vast changes in maternal employment and the early care and education landscape over the past 30 years.

  Tag-Team Parenting: Trends in Work Schedule Synchronization among Families with Young Children · 2026 · DOI

• While higher-SES parents are consistently more likely to use formal childcare, the reasons for this disparity remain poorly understood principally due to data limitations and the complexity of household dynamics.

  Inequalities in early childcare strategies: Evidence from Dutch administrative data · 2026 · DOI

• Originality/value This study extends the JD-R model to an under-researched GS setting and contributes to understanding how hybrid work evolves in contexts lacking a pre-existing culture of remote working, adding depth to theory and informing inclusive practice.

  Hybrid work and HRM practice in a global south context: a job demands-resources perspective · 2026 · DOI

• Academic studies into the 100:80:100 model are currently lacking, so these findings—based on the first-hand lived experiences of those who have experimented with this form of four-day week—make a valuable contribution to this emerging topic, providing important insights for both scholars, practitioners and policy makers.

  The four-day workweek in Australia: insights from early adopters of the 100:80:100 model · 2026 · DOI

• The study relies on cross-sectional self-report data, which limits causal inference and may introduce common method bias. In addition, key outcomes such as the overall evaluation of the teleworking experience are measured using single-item indicators, which may reduce reliability and construct validity. The sample includes only individuals who teleworked, excluding employees who may desire telework but cannot access it; therefore, the findings should be interpreted as representative of teleworkers rather than the full labour force. Finally, the survey lacks detailed indicators of job teleworkability, task characteristics, household working conditions, management practices, and organizational telework policies, limiting our ability to disentangle structural constraints from individual preferences. Moreover, the comparison between 2021 and 2022 captures aggregate changes over time but does not allow for attributing these differences to specific underlying mechanisms, such as organizational policies, sectoral restructuring, or individual adaptation processes. Broader contextual dynamics occurring during the post-pandemic period may also have contributed to the observed patterns. Despite these limitations, the findings offer a robust and timely portrait of telework in Spain during the transition from pandemic-driven remote work to more stable hybrid models, highlighting the central challenge of aligning organizational constraints with evolving employee expectations.

  Changing patterns of telework in spain: the growing gap between preference and practice among teleworkers · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should employ longitudinal and multilevel designs to examine whether preference-practice mismatches persist or decline as hybrid systems stabilize. Studies should incorporate personality traits, home workspace characteristics, and job teleworkability to explain individual differences better. Distinguishing between employees who telework more than they prefer and those who telework less than they would like will be essential to understanding the psychological consequences of the mismatch.

  Changing patterns of telework in spain: the growing gap between preference and practice among teleworkers · 2026 · DOI

• Companies should provide WFH allowances for utilities and introduce reimbursement for home office setup. Fair hybrid compensation policies are needed to balance both work models. Additionally, firms can offer discounted services and recognize WFH as a shared-cost model to reduce employee burden. Companies should improve internet and technical support to address major productivity barriers. Reducing distractions and improving communication through better tools and coordination is essential. A hybrid work model can balance WFH and WFO benefits, while uniform policies can be applied across job levels. Additionally, focusing on outcome-based performance will help enhance overall productivity. Organizations should focus on improving employee motivation and sense of belonging through better communication, recognition programs, and team-building initiatives. Since office and hybrid models enhance cultural connection, companies should adopt hybrid work structures to balance flexibility and engagement. Efforts should also be made to strengthen virtual engagement in WFH through regular interactions and collaborative activities. As engagement levels are similar across gender, uniform policies can be applied. Enhancing leadership support and fostering a strong organizational culture will further improve overall employee engagement. Organizations should focus on improving work-life balance by promoting clear boundaries between work and personal time and reducing overtime culture. Initiatives such as mental health support, stress management programs, and fitness activities should be introduced to improve overall well-being. Flexible work arrangements can help employees better manage personal and professional responsibilities. Since well-being issues are consistent across age and gender, uniform policies should be implemented for all employees. Additionally, companies should monitor workload, encourage regular breaks, and foster a supportive work environment to enhance employee well-being. Organizations should adopt flexible hybrid work models, as they best balance employee preferences, productivity, and well-being. Policies should allow employees to choose 1–2 office days per week to match their expectations. Since location flexibility is the top priority, companies should emphasize flexible working arrangements while also maintaining opportunities for social interaction. Efforts should be made to align current work models with employee needs through regular feedback and policy adjustments. Additionally, organizations should use data-driven approaches, like Chi-square insights, to design work structures that improve both employee satisfaction and organizational performance. © 2026 The Author(s). Published by IJCOPE Journal.

  Comparative Analysis of Productivity, Engagement, Well-Being, and Cost Implications across WFH, WFO, and Hybrid Work Models · 2026 · DOI

• 1. The data is based on 20 specific questions, so it may not capture every detail of an employee's daily work experience. 2. The results depend on how well employees remembered their productivity levels and costs when filling out the survey. 3. The data might mostly come from specific types of jobs (like IT or Finance), so the findings might not apply to factory or retail workers. 4. Since the data was collected from a specific region, the results might differ in cities with different costs of living or internet speeds. 5. Productivity was measured based on what employees said about themselves, rather than using company records or software tracking. 6. The study assumes all WFH employees had the same access to high-speed internet and quiet workspaces, which may not be true for everyone.

  Comparative Analysis of Productivity, Engagement, Well-Being, and Cost Implications across WFH, WFO, and Hybrid Work Models · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, several recommendations are proposed to enhance employee well-being and organizational effectiveness within the fast-food sector. First, fast-food establishment owners and managers are encouraged to improve compensation structures by providing competitive salaries, fair allowances, and performance-based incentives, while ensuring equitable access to benefits and promoting job security through transparent employment and promotion practices. In addition, management should strengthen professional development initiatives by offering regular training, seminars, and clear career advancement pathways to address gaps in growth-related satisfaction and support long-term employee development. Furthermore, organizations should cultivate a supportive and inclusive work environment by promoting teamwork, open communication, and consistent recognition programs. Efforts to enhance employee engagement and belongingness—such as teambuilding activities and supportive leadership practices—are essential in fostering stronger organizational commitment. Equally important is the implementation of employeecentered policies, including flexible scheduling, reasonable workloads, and wellness programs, to reduce stress and mitigate work–life conflict, thereby improving overall employee well-being. At the institutional level, Local Government Units (LGUs), in partnership with private establishments, should reinforce labor standards, promote employee welfare, and support skills development initiatives. Collaboration with the Philippine National Police (PNP) and barangay officials should also be sustained to ensure safe and secure working environments, particularly for employees assigned to extended or shifting schedules. Moreover, management should establish systematic feedback mechanisms to regularly assess employee needs, monitor satisfaction levels, and guide continuous improvements in workplace policies and practices. Finally, future researchers are encouraged to broaden the scope of inquiry by incorporating additional variables such as leadership style, organizational culture, and employee performance. Replication of the study across different locations and industries is likewise recommended to validate the findings and contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of workforce dynamics in diverse organizational contexts.

  A COMPREHENSIVE STUDY ON JOB SATISFACTION, WORK COMMITMENT, AND WORK-LIFE BALANCE AMONG EMPLOYEES IN THE FAST-FOOD INDUSTRY · 2026 · DOI

• Based from recommended: the findings of the study, the following are compensation, 1. For Hospital Administrators and Government Health Institutions: It that compensation is recommended systems be regularly reviewed and adjusted to ensure fairness, timeliness, and adequacy of salaries, hazard pay, overtime performance-based incentives. Strengthening financial and non-financial rewards may satisfaction, motivation, and retention in government hospitals. ‗For Hospital Management and Human Resource Departments: Additional employee benefits such as flexible work schedules, expanded leave privileges, improve nurses‘ work and 2. Copyright © ISRG Publishers. All rights Reserved. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.20265722 49 transportation assistance, emergency support, and meal provisions should be enhanced to promote work-life balance and reduce occupational stress among nurses. 3. For Nursing Administrators and Workforce Planners: Staffing patterns and nurse-to-patient ratios should be reassessed to ensure equitable workload distribution. Appropriate task delegation and adequate staffing may help minimize burnout, reduce fatigue, and improve the quality of patient care. 4. For Hospital Administrators and Government Agencies: Continuous upgrading and maintenance of medical equipment, supplies, and healthcare facilities should be prioritized to provide nurses with a safe, efficient, and supportive working to professional practice.

  Factors Affecting the Work Satisfaction of Nurses Employed in Government Hospitals: Basis for Enhanced Work-Life Balance · 2026 · DOI

• Although remote work practices have become more widespread due to the spread of globalization and the increasing influence of technology on the workplace, it is clear that remote work practices are still in their early stages. Consequently, as more people become involved in these remote work arrangements, it is foreseeable that the resulting work-related or human-resource-related obstacles will increase significantly, as the demands and needs of the work organization will change from various perspectives— environmental, technological, or sociological. It would be appropriate to note that human resources management must closely address this phenomenon and that further efforts are needed to keep pace with changes in work organizations and the demands of employees. Based on analyses conducted using data collected for this purpose, businesses should take the following measures regarding remote workers: within hybrid work schedules, they should ensure a balanced mix of office and home-based work on a weekly basis to prevent employees from working exclusively from home or the office; they should adopt motivational approaches, particularly toward female employees who are newly married or have young children; ensuring that work distribution/sharing is properly managed, and planning work schedules within optimal solutions that equally consider the needs and requests of all parties involved in work organization; assigning tasks in a manner that accommodates parental roles whenever possible; and, particularly for individuals who work remotely in virtual environments on a continuous basis, organizing meetings, gatherings, or events, and for supervisors to monitor their employees’ mental well-being, Veredas do Direito, v.23, e236369 – 2026 Salih Dicle & Elvan Yıldırım 19 can serve as beneficial solutions for an effective remote work setup. It is assessed that these measures will also shed light on positive developments regarding sustainability, efficiency, performance, and other criteria from both the company’s and employees’ perspectives. In summary; • Hybrid Models: Instead of constant remote work, models that balance office and home environments can reduce parental burnout. • Psychosocial Support: Businesses should organize flexible work arrangements and socialization activities, particularly for female employees with young children. • Future Studies: Sector-specific differences in remote work (IT, marketing, etc.) should be addressed in future research. REFERENCES Akdemir, A, Demirkaya, H. (2016).

  RELATİONSHİPS BETWEEN MARİTAL SATİSFACTİON, PARENTAL BURNOUT, AND MENTAL WELL-BEİNG İN THE CONTEXT OF REMOTE WORK · 2026 · DOI

• Strengths include a large, nationwide sample; the sepa- ration of weekday and weekend time use; and multivari- able analyses adjusting for major covariates based on a priori conceptual models. These strengths should, how- ever, be interpreted in light of several limitations. First, because this study was based on a nonprobability web panel and the sampling denominator was unavailable, response rates could not be calculated and representa- tiveness of the broader physician population cannot be assured. Participation may have depended on factors such as time availability or interest in work-life balance or gender-related issues, which could have introduced selection bias. The extent or direction of any such bias could not be directly assessed in the present study. Sec- ond, the relatively small number of women physicians (316 of 2,540 respondents) may limit more granular gender-stratified analyses. Third, self-reported time-use data may also have introduced measurement uncertainty, Kae et al. BMC Health Services Research (2026) 26:711 Page 7 of 9 Fig. 3 Adjusted gender differences in time use (female–male) with 95% CIs. Points show adjusted mean differences in hours/day (female minus male) with 95% CIs; separate panels display weekdays and weekends/holidays. Models adjust for age, marital status, youngest child’s age, specialty, and work- ing hours (working hours omitted when modeling working hours). Positive values indicate more time for women; negative values indicate more time for men. Abbreviations: CI, confidence interval recall bias, and social desirability bias. Prior studies sug- gest that reporting of unpaid care and domestic work may vary by gender and survey method or context, but the direction of any such bias is inconsistent across stud- ies [15–17]. Accordingly, we could not infer the direction of any gender-related reporting bias in the present study. In addition, aggregating activities into whole-hour daily totals clarifies trade-offs between categories but obscures within-day timing and fragmentation of work (e.g., split shifts, overnight calls), which may also have affected daily patterns of time allocation across unpaid care work, leisure, sleep, and other activities. Because daily time use was constrained to 24 h, differences in one activ- ity domain necessarily reflect trade-offs with time avail- able for other domains. The observed gender differences should therefore be interpreted as reallocations within a fixed daily time budget. Fourth, the annual income model adjusted for reported weekday working hours; therefore, the observed gender difference reflects partial adjust- ment for paid working time. However, this adjustment did not fully capture other time- and compensation- related contributors to annual income, such as weekend/ holiday work, overtime compensation, on-call duties, or participation in time-intensive procedures. The adjusted income difference may therefore still reflect unmeasured differences in work patterns and compensation structure. Finally, the cross-sectional design precludes causal inference and does not allow determination of the tem- poral ordering between unpaid care work, income, or time-use patterns. Residual confounding from unmea- sured factors (e.g., hospital size, hospital function, and workplace-level support for caregiving or work-life bal- ance) also cannot be excluded, although we adjusted for major covariates selected a priori.

  Time use, unpaid care work, and income: a nationwide cross-sectional web survey of gender gaps among hospital physicians in Japan · 2026 · DOI

• Given these contextual constraints on applicability, sev- eral lines of inquiry are warranted. Longitudinal cohorts should test whether shifts in domestic roles precede changes in career outcomes. Future studies could also strengthen causal inference and reduce bias through pro- spective evaluation of workplace or policy interventions, improved time-use measurement (e.g., time diaries), probability-based sampling where feasible, and analytic approaches that better account for the compositional nature of daily time use. Cross-national comparisons with harmonized indicators (work hours, leave uptake, part- ner employment) would position Japan within broader patterns. A practical first step is to implement standard- ized, gender-stratified dashboards at the institutional level using existing HR and scheduling records (e.g., paid hours, on-call frequency, protected academic time, leave uptake). De-identified regional summaries could then be aggregated periodically to evaluate reforms.

  Time use, unpaid care work, and income: a nationwide cross-sectional web survey of gender gaps among hospital physicians in Japan · 2026 · DOI

• Regardless of the positive findings, this study had a few limitations. Most of the study is fo- cused on qualitative assessments, and the sample size of the examined studies is somewhat small. To give a more thorough understanding of WLB, future research should try to in- corporate a wider range of literature and use a variety of approaches. It would be especially beneficial to conduct longitudinal research to examine how WLB interventions affect em- ployee well-being and organizational success in the long term. Additionally, studies exami- ning how gender, socioeconomic status, and cultural factors influence WLB experiences can provide a more profound understanding of the diverse needs of the workforce.

  A Systematic Literature Review on Work-Life Balance with a Particular Focus on Working Women · 2026 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Work-Family Balance Challenges

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Most recent work

• Hybrid work and HRM practice in a global south context: a job demands-resources perspective · Journal of Management Development · 2026
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• Inequalities in early childcare strategies: Evidence from Dutch administrative data · Advances in Life Course Research · 2026
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• Reconfiguring Gendered Power in Families Through Men's Emotions · Journal of Family Theory & Review · 2026
• The four-day workweek in Australia: insights from early adopters of the 100:80:100 model · Humanities and Social Sciences Communications · 2026
• The Real Effects of Fair Workweek Laws on Work Schedules: Evidence from Los Angeles · Management Science · 2026
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