Open research questions in Gender and Technology in Education

What the literature leaves open

• Based on the findings that classroom technology integration significantly predicted student engagement, academic performance, accessibility to learning resources, and educational outcomes, the following recommendations are made: 1. Policy Level - Cross River State Secondary Education Board (CR-SEB): The finding that technology use explained 46% of variance in accessibility to learning resources indicates that digital tools most directly address textbook and material shortages in public schools. CR-SEB should therefore prioritize ICT infrastructure investment, focusing on solar-powered projectors, offline digital libraries, and internet access for schools outside Calabar metropolis. Policy should RESEARCH PAPER PUBLISHED ResearchEarn ID DOI PUBLISHER 28th June, 2026 RE-EDUCAT-2026-000007 10.5281/zenodo.20980040 RESEARCHEARN mandate a minimum technology-student ratio per school to reduce the urban-rural digital divide. 2. School Administration Level: Given that technology use significantly predicted student engagement β =.62 and educational outcomes β =.59, principals should institutionalize technology-integrated lesson planning. This includes timetabling specific periods for computer laboratory use, encouraging teachers to incorporate educational videos and interactive quizzes, and creating school-based digital content repositories. School budgets should allocate funds for routine maintenance of existing devices to ensure sustainability. 3. Teacher Training Level: Since technology alone explained only 26-46% of variance, pedagogy remains critical. The Ministry of Education should organize TPACK-based professional development workshops for teachers in Cross River State. Training should move beyond basic computer literacy to focus on selecting appropriate digital tools for specific subjects and designing lessons that foster critical thinking and collaboration. This aligns with the study’s theoretical framework and addresses the 54-74% unexplained variance. 4. Curriculum Development Level: The significant effect on 21st-century skills suggests that curriculum planners should embed digital literacy and technology-mediated tasks into the SS2 syllabus across subjects. Assessment should include project-based evaluations that require students to use digital tools for research, presentation, and problem-solving, reflecting the competencies measured in this study. 5. Future Research: This study was correlational and limited to SS2 students in public schools. Further research should adopt experimental designs to establish causality between specific technologies and learning outcomes. Qualitative studies are also needed to explore how teachers RESEARCH PAPER PUBLISHED ResearchEarn ID DOI PUBLISHER 28th June, 2026 RE-EDUCAT-2026-000007 10.5281/zenodo.20980040 RESEARCHEARN with high TPACK use technology, to explain the 54-74% variance not accounted for by technology use alone. Studies should extend to private schools and other educational zones for comparative analysis.

  TEACHING AND LEARNING THROUGH TECHNOLOGY INTEGRATION: EFFECTS ON STUDENT ENGAGEMENT, ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE, ACCESSIBILITY AND EDUCATIONAL OUTCOMES IN CROSS RIVER STATE, NIGERIA · 2026 · DOI

• RESEARCH PAPER PUBLISHED ResearchEarn ID DOI PUBLISHER 28th June, 2026 RE-EDUCAT-2026-000006 10.5281/zenodo.20979983 RESEARCHEARN Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made to improve the effectiveness of smart classrooms in enhancing student engagement in senior secondary schools in Sokoto State: 1. Schools should be equipped with reliable solar power backup and stable internet connectivity. This will ensure that smart classroom tools remain functional for regular teaching and learning. 2. Teachers need ongoing, hands-on training focused on using interactive displays, LMS platforms, and digital assessments in lessons. Building ease of use will increase routine integration of smart tools. 3. Curriculum-aligned resources in English and Arabic should be created to reflect the cultural context of Sokoto State. Relevant content will improve acceptance and usefulness for both teachers and students. 4. School inspectors should track how often teachers deliver smart-enabled lessons and use digital platforms.

  Evaluation of Smart Classrooms in Enhancing Student Engagement in Senior Secondary Schools in Sokoto State · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the findings, several recommendations can be made at the end of the study. 1. The fact that primary school teachers have a positive attitude towards the use of artificial intelligence in education and low concerns about technology-induced unemployment indicates that they do not perceive artificial intelligence as a threat. For this reason, materials explaining how artificial intelligence tools can be used in primary education should be produced. Sample lesson plans should be included in these materials. 2. An examination of the study's findings reveals that classroom teachers who have received training in technology have a more positive attitude towards the use of artificial intelligence in education. For this reason, in-service training courses covering artificial intelligence literacy should be provided to classroom teachers. 3. The fact that primary school teachers' attitudes towards the use of artificial intelligence in education are moderate, along with their concerns about technology-induced unemployment, indicates that teachers also have various concerns regarding artificial intelligence. Furthermore, the existence of both positive and negative views on the use of artificial intelligence in primary school lessons supports this idea. For this reason, artificial intelligence tools should be integrated into primary school education without neglecting human aspects. 4. A moderate negative relationship has been observed between primary school teachers' attitudes towards the use of artificial intelligence in education and their concerns about technology-induced unemployment. New studies could be designed incorporating variables such as artificial intelligence literacy, awareness, and self-efficacy, which may mediate this relationship. This would allow for a more in-depth examination of the subject.

  Primary School Teachers Concerns About Technology-Induced Unemployment and Their Attitudes Toward Artificial Intelligence in Education · 2026 · DOI

• Whereas that may there are many factors influence the innovation skill development of ICT diploma trainees, this study only considered AI tools use in PBA task execution. However, to minimise the effect of extraneous variables on the dependent variable, the researcher included ICT diploma trainees’ gender and previous experience with PBAs as control variables in the statistical models in the study. The results indicated that trainees’ gender had a non-significant negative effect on innovation skill development while prior experience with PBAs had a statistically significant negative effect on innovation skill development.

  Influence of Artificial Intelligence Tools Use in Performance-Based Assessment Tasks on Trainee Innovation Skill Development in Technical Institutions, Kenya · 2026 · DOI

• private]) should be evaluated cautiously, since they may not be representative 23 Interna'onal Journal of Computer Science Educa'on in Schools, February 2026, Vol. Globally, there is a dearth of research concerning the motivations of computer science educators, and the limited studies utilize scales that exhibit recognized validity and reliability.

  Teaching Computer Science: Analyzing the Key Factors Affecting Educators' Professional Motivation · 2026 · DOI

• leaves many Somali university students vulnerable to additional risk of harm or exploitation when they engage with others online. A quantitative, cross-sectional survey design was used, and data were collected via convenience sampling from 388 students across the academic levels and fac- ulties of Somali universities. Nonparametric tests (Mann-Whitney U and Krus- kal-Wallis) were used to evaluate differences in students’ self-efficacy and per- ceptions of the internet by gender, age, and level of education. The results of this study provide empirical evidence regarding Somali university students’ digital self-efficacy and perceptions of internet safety. The results indi- cate that these students differ in demographics, self-efficacy, and perceptions of internet safety regarding social media. Therefore, this study will inform and de- velop specifically tailored cybersecurity education and digital literacy policies in Somali higher education. This research found that Somali university students demonstrated a very high degree of self-confidence across all four areas studied. There were also slightly higher levels of awareness of web security and social engineering than of com- puter security and malicious software (M = 3.39) and social networking sites (M = 3.38), compared with computer security (M = 3.25) and malicious software (M = 3.28). Significant group differences were observed. Male students reported higher self-efficacy across all domains than females (p < .001; WSS p = .014), older age groups (27-30 and 30+) demonstrated significantly higher levels than younger groups (p ≤ .002), and undergraduate students reported higher self-ef- ficacy than postgraduates (p < .001). To improve academic performance and encourage safer online behaviour, So- mali universities should offer students structured cybersecurity and internet safety courses, as well as additional tools to protect their personal information and detect online threats. Increasing the availability of these courses will also help reduce differences in access to cybersecurity and digital literacy among stu- dents from different demographic groups. Future research should evaluate how the implementation of structured cyberse- curity interventions influences students’ behaviours and attitudes regarding their online activities, and use mixed-methods research to capture the ongoing im- pact of these interventions on students’ digital practices. As Somalia continues to develop, strengthening digital literacy and internet safety among Somali university students will encourage greater academic perfor- mance and contribute to improving national educational quality and technologi- cal advancement. Further studies should evaluate the sustainability of cybersecurity awareness programmes over time and explore cross-country comparisons within East Af- rica to identify trends and best practices regarding the provision of cybersecurity education and awareness among students in fragile higher education contexts. It is important to establish a foundation for the continued growth and develop- ment of technology in the region.

  The Investigation of Student Self-efficacy and Perceptions in the Use of the Internet in Somalia · 2026 · DOI

• From a digital divide perspective, inequalities in technology use are not limited to access to devices but also include differences in digital skills, attitudes, and meaningful engagement with ICT.

  Navigating the digital divide: An in-depth exploration of ICT devices, knowledge, belief, usage, and attitude in educational settings · 2026 · DOI

• To improve our understanding of university students’ perceived learning levels in programming, future research should explore the factors that contribute to the significant 49% variance observed.

  Examining the Factors Affecting University Students' Perceived Learning Levels in Programming · 2026 · DOI

• for https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-006-9022-5 future Honey, S. (2018). Graphics calculators in the primary classroom: Student-teachers’ beliefs and the TPACK framework. International Journal for Technology in Mathematics Education, 25(3), 3-16. https://doi.org/10.1564/tme_v25.3.01 Hu, L.-t., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural equation modeling, 6(1), 1-55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118 Joo, Y. J., Park, S., & Lim, E. (2018). Factors influencing preservice teachers’ intention to use technology. Educational Technology & Society, 21(3), 48-59. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26458506 Khong, H., Celik, I., Le, T. T. T., Lai, V. T. T., Nguyen, A., & Bui, H. (2023). Examining teachers’ behavioural intention for online teaching after COVID-19 pandemic: A large-scale survey. Education and Information Technologies, 28(5), 5999-6026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11417-6 Kim, C., Kim, M. K., Lee, C., Spector, J. M., & DeMeester, K. (2013). Teacher beliefs and technology integration. Teaching and Teacher Education, 29, 76-85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2012.08.005 Klemer, A., Merdler, M., & Peled, Y. (2024). Perceptions, attitudes and approaches of mathematics teachers to remote teaching in in Science and Technology, 56(10), 1887-1906.

  Technological pedagogical readiness: Examining TPACK, educational ecosystem, and teacher attitudes in Chinese primary mathematics education · 2026 · DOI

• Based on the results of the present study, the following recommendations were suggested: 1) Counselling interventions should be put in place and made effective, to encourage and assist undergraduates develop the right attitude towards virtual learning. 2) Guidance and counselling services should be extended to parents/guardians for them to understand the usefulness of effective communication skills in behaviour modification and use same to assist their children in developing the right attitude towards technological learning. 3) Virtual learning environments, being the inevitable future of education and learning, is in dire need of acceptance by the society as a whole. Essentially, it would require a positive attitude from all quarters of the society for it to hold sway. The government should embark on a nationwide advocacy to create the awareness of the all important virtual learning pedagogy, on why it should be encouraged by everybody. 4) If e-learning would sustain as the learning paradigm of the new era, the activities must commence at the primary school level so that the right attitude towards the nascent learning mode will be developed early in life and ingrained. 5) Finally, the government should work closely with the education managers and the staff union of universities, by meeting with their recommendations 301 NIU Journal of Social Sciences and demands to properly revitalise the tertiary institutions system which would further enhance the workability of virtual learning in the universities.

  Influence of Parents’ Socio-Economic Status on Undergraduates’ Attitude Towards Virtual Learning in Post Covid-19 Pandemic Era in a Nigerian Public University · 2026 · DOI

• Although ICT-based environments show potential for supporting female students’ self-efficacy in STEM, the available evidence is limited and largely descriptive and therefore should be interpreted with caution.

  Transformation in STEM education through ICT: A systematic review of life skills development and gender-related outcomes · 2026 · DOI

• To address the identified barriers, it is recommended to revise the ICT curriculum to emphasize practical skills and to incorporate visually supported learning materials in Tamil, Sinhala, and English. Additionally, student-centered teaching practices, including interactive exercises, group projects, step-by-step demonstrations, and frequent feedback, should be adopted to enhance student confidence. Regular professional development opportunities for teachers are necessary to strengthen ICT competencies, pedagogical skills, and gender- sensitive teaching approaches. Furthermore, awareness programs for parents and community members featuring female ICT role models should be implemented to foster family support and highlight the significance of ICT education for girls’ future opportunities.

  Learning difficulties of information and communication technology among the GCE A level girl students in the remote areas of Sri Lanka · 2026 · DOI

• The conclusion recommends designing professional development programs focusing on rural teachers' anxiety reduction, yet the paper provides no baseline data on what specific AI tools or applications cause the highest configuration anxiety among rural science educators. Future intervention studies should first identify the most anxiety-inducing AI applications through qualitative analysis of rural teacher concerns, then test whether targeted training on those specific tools reduces anxiety and increases adoption rates.

  The silent barrier: how technology anxiety shapes AI adoption in rural classrooms in the western zone of Sabah · 2026 · DOI

• The paper identifies that external pressure from the Digital Education Policy (DPD) increases technology anxiety among teachers, yet provides no empirical measurement of how policy implementation intensity or enforcement mechanisms specifically correlate with anxiety levels. Future research should quantify DPD implementation variables (training duration, mandatory adoption deadlines, administrative oversight) and measure their direct effects on each anxiety component among rural science teachers.

  The silent barrier: how technology anxiety shapes AI adoption in rural classrooms in the western zone of Sabah · 2026 · DOI

• The study confirmed a negative relationship between technology anxiety and AI adoption among science teachers, but only within the western zone of Sabah. This regional limitation means the findings cannot be generalized to other Malaysian regions or subject areas beyond science education. Future research must replicate this anxiety-adoption relationship across different geographical zones (central, southern Sabah) and non-science subjects (mathematics, humanities) to establish broader applicability.

  The silent barrier: how technology anxiety shapes AI adoption in rural classrooms in the western zone of Sabah · 2026 · DOI

• While the study found no significant difference in technology anxiety based on teacher gender or teaching experience, the rural-urban divide showed significant differences (82.1% internet access in rural vs 98.2% in urban areas; 40.2% device readiness in Ranau vs 71.4% in Penampang). Future studies should investigate whether the rural infrastructure gap (internet connectivity, device availability, technical support) acts as a confounding variable masking gender and experience effects that might emerge under equalized infrastructure conditions.

  The silent barrier: how technology anxiety shapes AI adoption in rural classrooms in the western zone of Sabah · 2026 · DOI

• The study identified configuration anxiety as the highest anxiety component among rural science teachers in Sabah, yet this contradicts Henderson and Corry (2021) who found socio-technical anxiety (related to ethical issues like plagiarism) was highest. Future research should directly compare configuration anxiety versus socio-technical anxiety within the same rural classroom context to reconcile these conflicting findings about which anxiety type most strongly inhibits AI adoption.

  The silent barrier: how technology anxiety shapes AI adoption in rural classrooms in the western zone of Sabah · 2026 · DOI

• The study calls for alignment between academic preparation and Jordan's AI strategy, but specific mechanisms for institutionalizing this alignment and measuring its effectiveness are not detailed.

  Artificial intelligence anxiety, digital well-being, and future career concerns among engineering and information technology students in Jordan · 2026 · DOI

• The study documents gender disparities in AI anxiety among female students but does not deeply examine the specific structural and sociocultural barriers (e.g., access to mentoring, field norms, opportunity pipelines) that drive these differences in the Jordanian context.

  Artificial intelligence anxiety, digital well-being, and future career concerns among engineering and information technology students in Jordan · 2026 · DOI

• Despite efforts to improve student engagement and satisfaction, the extent to which gender influence this relationship remains unclear, particularly in the context of FYBES in Ghana.

  Association between learning engagement and learning satisfaction among first-year business students in higher education: the moderating effect of gender · 2025 · DOI

• The results indicate that the presence of ICT in the classroom is associated with self-efficacy in teaching and the cognitive activation of students and with the organisational aspects of the school, which are scarcely addressed by the existing literature on this topic of interest, such as school climate, educational innovation and cooperation among teachers.

  Teaching practices and organisational aspects associated with the use of ICT · 2024 · DOI

• For scaling up pedagogical innovation with information and communications technology (ICT), governments around the world put a concerted effort into teachers’ acceptance of ICTs and the actual use of ICTs for instruction, yet there is limited literature about the conceptual framework of teachers accepting the ICTs and their usage for instruction typically in the Asia-Pacific region.

  Conceptual model to predict Filipino teachers’ adoption of ICT-based instruction in class: using the UTAUT model · 2020 · DOI

• 2,510 pupils were examined and it was established that: 1) numerous pupils' indications, obtained through an open question, allowed for distinguishing as many as 14 categories of sources of information; 2) Th e pupils mainly locate the sources of ICT knowledge and skills in informal education (61.

  Sources of Pupils’ ICT Knowledge and Skills - Differentiating Factors · 2019 · DOI

• Focusing on tertiary education in Tunisia, this article attempts to highlight the gap in knowledge about the effects of ICT on education in developing countries by providing evidence from this region.

  Measuring the Impact of ICTs on Academic Performance: Evidence From Higher Education in Tunisia · 2016 · DOI

• However, little is known about the extent to which higher education policymakers in Africa give attention to the issue of preparing academics for ICT usage.

  Engaging Academics in Training in Information Communication Technology (ICT): An African Experience with special focus on Uganda · 2015 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Gender and Technology in Education

• Effects of COVID-19 in E-learning on higher education institution students: the group comparison between male and female · Quality & Quantity · 2020 · 343 citations
• Acceptance of artificial intelligence among pre-service teachers: a multigroup analysis · International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education · 2023 · 312 citations
• Unpacking teachers’ intentions to integrate technology: A meta-analysis · Educational Research Review · 2019 · 239 citations
• Taking a future perspective by learning from the past – A systematic review of assessment instruments that aim to measure primary and secondary school students' ICT literacy · Educational Research Review · 2016 · 203 citations
• Pedagogical agents as learning companions: the impact of agent emotion and gender · Journal of Computer Assisted Learning · 2007 · 166 citations
• Equity and Computers in the Schools: A Decade of Research · Review of Educational Research · 1991 · 143 citations
• Assessing digital self-efficacy: Review and scale development · Computers & Education · 2022 · 143 citations
• Gender differences in information and communication technology use & skills: a systematic review and meta-analysis · Education and Information Technologies · 2021 · 120 citations
• The effect of communication, writing, and technology apprehension on likelihood to use new communication technologies · Communication Education · 1997 · 116 citations
• Students’ attitudes toward technology: exploring the relationship among affective, cognitive and behavioral components of the attitude construct · International Journal of Technology and Design Education · 2021 · 111 citations

Most recent work

• Evaluating the effects of ICT engagement on science and mathematics achievement: Evidence from PISA 2022 using structural equation modeling · Studies In Educational Evaluation · 2026
• Does digital access translate into human capital gains? Assessing information technology use effects on cognitive and non-cognitive development of students in Western Rural China · PLoS ONE · 2026
• Examining the Relationship Between Artificial Intelligence Literacy, Attitudes Toward Artificial Intelligence, and Technostress Among University Students · Hacettepe University Journal of Education · 2026
• Artificial intelligence anxiety, digital well-being, and future career concerns among engineering and information technology students in Jordan · Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence · 2026
• The silent barrier: how technology anxiety shapes AI adoption in rural classrooms in the western zone of Sabah · Muallim Journal of Social Science and Humanities · 2026
• A STUDY ON ATTITUDE TOWARDS DIGITAL LEARNING AND ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS · EPRA International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research (IJMR) · 2026
• Effects of <scp>ICT</scp> Integration on Students' Academic Achievement on Biology in Ethiopian Higher Educational Institutions · School Science and Mathematics · 2026
• Primary School Teachers' Attitudes Toward Mathematics Teaching, Mathematics Anxiety, and Beliefs About Their Ability to Use Technology · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026
• Understanding Motivation to Lead in IT through Individual Traits and Gender Policy Perceptions · 2026
• Impact, Challenges, and Support System of Internet Use in Universities of Kalyana Karnataka: A Study of Students and Research Scholars · Zenodo (CERN European Organization for Nuclear Research) · 2026

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