Open research questions in Outdoor and Experiential Education

What the literature leaves open

• There is a lack of evidence on the design of adventure learning and its impact on children's cognitive skills and social and emotional learning. The study identifies a gap in the understanding of how adventure learning can be used to promote improved peer relationships, help repair broken student-teacher relationships, and engage disengaged learners. The research highlights the need for effective transfer mechanisms to ensure gains are maintained in school.

  Flourishing through adventure learning: A (semi)cautionary tale · 2026 · DOI

• The study only included documents that met the inclusion criteria, which may have limited the scope of the review. The search was not limited by publication year, language, or age of participants, which may have introduced bias.

  Are they ready? A narrative literature review of pre-program physical and social-emotional preparation for adolescent outdoor education participants · 2026 · DOI

• There is a lack of literature on the preparation of participants for outdoor education programs. The existing literature focuses on how best to prepare staff to plan and deliver a program, rather than the preparation of participants.

  Are they ready? A narrative literature review of pre-program physical and social-emotional preparation for adolescent outdoor education participants · 2026 · DOI

• There is a paucity of data concerning the lived-body experiences of women age 50 and over. Much of the knowledge concerning women and immersive wilderness recreation has been drawn from the perspective of a younger demographic.

  Post-Menopausal Women Speak Out: A Study Examining Generational Attitudes and Barriers to Wilderness Engagement · 2026 · DOI

• The integration of outdoor learning into early childhood education remains limited. There is a need to address emotional and motivational processes within teacher education programs to support the adoption of outdoor learning methodologies.

  Transforming preservice teachers’ emotions and appraisals on outdoor learning in early childhood education · 2026 · DOI

• The challenge of promoting early brain development in a modern world with limited exposure to natural environments. The challenge of strengthening parenting skills in a modern world with limited support for parents and caregivers.

  OWL babies: The impact of an outdoor learning programme on early brain development and parenting skills · 2026 · DOI

• Small sample size of 14 baby-parent couples. Limited to participants who volunteered to participate in the research.

  OWL babies: The impact of an outdoor learning programme on early brain development and parenting skills · 2026 · DOI

• Future research can explore the interplay between the motivations and the elements of Self-Determination Theory in more depth. Further studies can investigate the impact of outdoor learning on student outcomes.

  Embracing nature’s classroom: Understanding educators’ intrinsic motivation for outdoor learning and play through self-study · 2026 · DOI

• There is a gap in understanding educators' motivations for delivering high-quality outdoor learning experiences. Prior research has highlighted the benefits of outdoor learning, but the motivations behind it are not well understood.

  Embracing nature’s classroom: Understanding educators’ intrinsic motivation for outdoor learning and play through self-study · 2026 · DOI

• Outdoor learning environments can pose challenges for neurodivergent participants. There is a need for training programs that support outdoor educators in teaching students with diverse needs. The study notes the challenge of balancing support for neurodivergent students with the risk of fostering dependency or reinforcing counterproductive behaviors.

  Bridging neurodiversity and nature: a case study on inclusive training for outdoor educators · 2026 · DOI

• Further research should investigate how leaders and educators in outdoor education programs can be supported and motivated to use neurodiversity-affirming models. In this case, strong leadership commitment and proactive collaboration were central to the training’s success. Future studies should also explore the translation of these approaches from training to practice and examine the conditions that best support the sustainability of inclusive strategies in outdoor education settings. Furthermore, special attention should be paid to promoting inclusive teaching practices in outdoor settings. Kelly et al. (2022), for example, proposed implementing a frame- work in outdoor education called Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which supports students with diverse needs through multiple means of engagement, representation, and expression. Similarly, Lieberman (2022) discussed UDL in outdoor adventure programs for students with disabilities. These intentional teaching approaches in outdoor education for including individuals who may otherwise not be able to participate are key to creating a more inclusive climate. Moreover, a key takeaway from this study’s training and UDL is that intentional instructional changes benefit all students, not only those they are designed to support. Future studies should continue to explore inclusivity in outdoor education.

  Bridging neurodiversity and nature: a case study on inclusive training for outdoor educators · 2026 · DOI

• The author identifies a gap in outdoor education, where the field has not fully acknowledged or addressed the impact of Canada's colonial history on Indigenous Peoples and land. The author recognizes that reconciliation in outdoor education is not a new idea, but there is still a need for guidance on how to create purposeful encounters that acknowledge, examine, and challenge dominant colonial discourses.

  Experience, re-experience, and experience back: a developing pathway for reconciliation in outdoor education · 2026 · DOI

• The current education system is test-dominant, leaving a gap for alternative approaches to education. There is a need for studies on the long-term influence of Sit Spot on students' holistic well-being.

  Slow education, Sit Spot, and holistic well-being: A narrative case study in secondary science education · 2026 · DOI

• Further study on the influence of parents and children on each other's camp experiences - Research on the effectiveness of camps in building strong relationships with parents and children

  Unpacking Parent Perspectives on Summer Camp: An Explanatory Sequential Mixed-Methods Approach · 2026 · DOI

• The field of outdoor experiential education faces challenges in supporting diverse participants. An anti-oppressive framework is needed to address these challenges. The development of such a framework requires drawing on concepts from various disciplines.

  Empowering from the Start: Building an Anti-Oppressive Framework for Outdoor Experiential Education · 2026 · DOI

• Future research should explore the impact of risky outdoor play on the development of toddlers with developmental delays or disabilities. Future research should examine the effectiveness of equity-focused and disability-informed strategies to promote developmentally meaningful outdoor play experiences.

  A Risk Worth Taking? Caregiver Perspectives on Risky Outdoor Play for Toddlers with Developmental Disabilities in an Urban U.S. Setting · 2026 · DOI

• The fast-changing social, technological, and professional environment - The need for learners to develop various competencies - The limitations of traditional educational methods

  Experiential Learning: Empowering Learners With 21st-Century Skills · 2026 · DOI

• The time- and resource-intensive nature of experiential learning. The need for educators to design effective experiential learning opportunities. The challenge of ensuring that learners have the required knowledge and skills to engage with experiential learning opportunities.

  A theoretical framework for experiential learning: Creating Active Knowledge Experiences (CAKE) · 2026 · DOI

• The lack of a comprehensive framework to guide the design of experiential learning opportunities. The need for a theory-informed approach to experiential learning. The requirement for a user-friendly tool to support educators in creating effective experiential learning opportunities.

  A theoretical framework for experiential learning: Creating Active Knowledge Experiences (CAKE) · 2026 · DOI

• <title>Abstract</title> Outdoor learning is posited to potentiate social–emotional learning (SEL) in early childhood, yet cross-national randomized evidence remains scarce.

  Nature-oriented social-emotional learning in public preschools: a multi-site, three-arm randomized trial comparing outdoor learning with indoor delivery for preschool prosocial behavior in Slovakia and Spain · 2025 · DOI

• However, most research to date has focused on younger children (under 10), leaving a gap in understanding the specific barriers and facilitators of outdoor play for EA.

  Parental perspectives on barriers and facilitators of early adolescent outdoor play: A qualitative study · 2024 · DOI

• Logistical challenges were encountered during the intervention. Children's limited written and spoken abilities made it challenging to evaluate the benefits of Forest Schools using traditional methods. Structural barriers within the built-environment, parents' lack of knowledge of suitable spaces to play, and parents' confidence in managing children's behaviour and keeping them safe restricted children's opportunities to access green spaces.

  Unlocking the forest: An ethnographic evaluation of Forest Schools on developmental outcomes for 3-year-olds unaccustomed to woodland spaces · 2024 · DOI

• Further research on the benefits of Forest Schools for pre-school children, - Investigation of the long-term effects of Forest Schools on children's development

  Unlocking the forest: An ethnographic evaluation of Forest Schools on developmental outcomes for 3-year-olds unaccustomed to woodland spaces · 2024 · DOI

• Strengths-based approaches to research with military-connected children (MCC) are sparse and their voices are rarely given the equivalent weight and influence compared to the voices of adults.

  “Not Just Participants”: Military-Connected Children’s Perspectives of a Recreational Camp · 2022 · DOI

• However, previous research has demonstrated that OE is sometimes poorly understood in the PSE sector leading to program closures and limited program development.

  Outdoor education in Canadian post-secondary education: common philosophies, goals, and activities · 2022 · DOI

Most-cited papers in Outdoor and Experiential Education

• Benefits of Nature Contact for Children · Journal of Planning Literature · 2015 · 617 citations
• An Investigation of the Status of Outdoor Play · Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood · 2004 · 443 citations
• Children's outdoor play: Exploring parental concerns about children's safety and the changing nature of childhood · Geoforum · 1997 · 438 citations
• The natural environment as a playground for children · Landscape and Urban Planning · 2000 · 336 citations
• Public Parks and Physical Activity Among Adolescent Girls · PEDIATRICS · 2006 · 319 citations
• Association of access to parks and recreational facilities with the physical activity of young children · Preventive Medicine · 2006 · 302 citations
• Parents' perceptions of neighborhood safety and children's physical activity · Preventive Medicine · 2006 · 264 citations
• Does the outdoor environment matter for psychological restoration gained through running? · Psychology of sport and exercise · 2003 · 235 citations
• Experiencing nature in children's summer camps: Affective, cognitive and behavioural consequences · Journal of Environmental Psychology · 2012 · 226 citations
• Connecting students to nature – how intensity of nature experience and student age influence the success of outdoor education programs · Environmental Education Research · 2016 · 225 citations

Most recent work

• Rock climbing as experiential pedagogy in outdoor education: The positive psychology outcomes and students' well-being · Acta Psychologica · 2026
• A theoretical framework for experiential learning: Creating Active Knowledge Experiences (CAKE) · Advances in Health Sciences Education · 2026
• Outdoor learning interventions and at-risk students: a mixed-methods systematic literature review and a narrative synthesis · Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning · 2026
• Embracing nature’s classroom: Understanding educators’ intrinsic motivation for outdoor learning and play through self-study · Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education · 2026
• Readiness for virtual experiential education: A qualitative study of PharmD students and faculty preceptor perspectives in a postgraduate program · Currents in Pharmacy Teaching and Learning · 2026
• Experiential learning competencies for sustainable development education: A field case study from Eigg, Scotland · The Journal of Environmental Education · 2026
• Are they ready? A narrative literature review of pre-program physical and social-emotional preparation for adolescent outdoor education participants · Journal of Outdoor and Environmental Education · 2026
• Out onto the grass: Teaching outdoors · University of Regensburg Publication Server (University of Regensburg) · 2026
• Turning points for children experiencing vulnerabilities: the role of outdoor adventure · Children and Youth Services Review · 2026
• How do outdoor activities impact developmental disorders in children? · Open MIND · 2026

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